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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2023) | Viewed by 18320

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Prof. Dr. Muhsin Kilic

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical Engineering , Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, 16130 Bursa, Turkey
Interests: energy; renewable energy; heat and mass transfer; cooling; thermodynamics; thermal comfort; CFD; HVAC; thermal systems; turbomachinery

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The cooling systems are mandatory to maintain optimal media temperature and provide an environment for all the equipment to work properly, material kept safely, or humans to feel comfortable. However, several types of cooling technologies that are used to maintain the required cooling effect consume large amounts of energy. Recent trends in cooling systems focus on low energy consumption, long operation life, high reliability, and low environmental impact, as well as superior performance and application flexibility, as opposed to traditional cooling systems. Therefore, innovative cooling systems with efficient energy management are vital for many commonly used systems, including: HVAC applications, internal combustions engines, turbines, compressors, fuel cells, electric vehicles, batteries, lighting, electronics, solar photo-voltaic (PV) and PVT applications, etc. This special issue should include works discussing the above aspects, with some emphasis on cooling systems, as well as proposing methods, techniques, materials and interventions for the improvement of cooling technologies.

This Special Issue welcomes submissions on the following topics:

Assessment of energy-efficient sustainable cooling system applications.

Renewable energy usage of cooling systems.

Measurement methods and techniques for the assessment of energy-efficient cooling systems.

Cooling improvements, methods, techniques, materials and means for energy efficiency.

Alternative and innovative sustainable cooling technologies.

Linking cooling aspects with energy efficiency and sustainability.

Control methods and techniques for optimizing cooling systems.

Prof. Dr. Muhsin Kilic
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

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Keywords

cooling
energy efficiency
sustainability
electronic cooling
battery cooling
electric vehicle
photo voltaic
engine cooling
HVAC
renewable

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 9168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Thermodynamic Performance Evaluation of Various Gas Liquefaction Cycles for Cryogenic Energy Storage

by Muhsin Kılıç and Ayse Fidan Altun

Sustainability 2023, 15(24), 16906; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416906 - 16 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1066

Abstract

This paper conducts comparative thermodynamic analysis and performance evaluations of various gas liquefaction configurations. The four most common liquefaction systems (Linde–Hampson, Kapitza, Heylandt, and Claude) were considered. The isothermal and multi-stage isentropic compression processes were evaluated and compared as actual compression processes. Thermodynamic evaluation is based on the energy required to compress a unit mass of gas, the liquefied air mass flow rate, and the exergetic efficiency. The modeling results show that three-stage compression cycles retain lower energy requirements. Increasing the compression stage from one to two for all the processes decreases the energy requirement by 34 to 38%. Changing the compression stage number from two to three reduces the energy requirement by 13%. The compression pressure and expander flow rate ratio significantly affect the liquefied air mass flow rate. Hence, a parametric analysis was conducted to obtain the best operating conditions for each considered cycle. Depending on the compression pressure, the optimum expander flow rate values of the Claude, Kapitza, and Heylandt cycles change from 0.65 to 0.5, 0.65 to 0.55, and 0.35 to 0.30, respectively. For the optimum cases, the Claude, Kapitza, and Heylandt cycles result in liquid yields that are about 2.5, 2.2, and 1.6 times higher than that of the Linde–Hampson cycle. The Claude cycle is the best operating cycle for all the considered performance metrics. Moreover, the performances of the Linde–Hampson and Claude cycles are investigated for various gases. Under the same operating conditions, the results show that better performance parameters are obtained with the gases that have relatively high normal boiling temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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24 pages, 4889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Catalyzing Cooling Tower Efficiency: A Novel Energy Performance Indicator and Functional Unit including Climate and Cooling Demand Normalization

by Paula M. Wenzel, Eva Fensterle and Peter Radgen

Sustainability 2023, 15(21), 15454; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115454 - 30 Oct 2023

Viewed by 993

Abstract

Energy and climate targets necessitate efficiency indicators to reflect resource-saving potentials. Prevailing indicators for cooling towers, however, often omit the effect of outside conditions. Hence, this study introduces an innovative indicator grounded in the energy efficiency ratio. Our proposed metric is the cost–benefit ratio between electricity demand and the thermodynamic minimum airflow. Thus, we call the novel indicator the airflow performance indicator. To validate its feasibility, we apply the indicator first to an extensive dataset encompassing 6575 cooling tower models and second to a year-long case study involving a data center’s wet cooling system. As a result, the energy performance indicator demonstrates that dry cooling requires eight times more minimum airflow at the median than evaporative cooling would, directly correlating to the fan power. Furthermore, efficiency benchmarks derived from the dataset of 6575 cooling tower models provide a comparative assessment of the case study. Defining the quantified benefit as minimum airflow additionally underscores the limitations of free cooling as the wet cooling system only partly covers the cooling demand, requiring chillers additionally. In conclusion, the indicator empowers the identification of energy-saving potentials in the selection, design, and operation of cooling towers. Moreover, the functional unit definition provides a foundation for future life cycle assessments of cooling towers, enhancing cooling tower efficiency and sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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20 pages, 5596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Thermal Performance of Three Different Cold Plates Designed for the Electrical Vehicle Battery Module

by Gökhan Sevilgen, Harun Dursun and Muhsin Kılıç

Sustainability 2023, 15(19), 14162; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914162 - 25 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1293

Abstract

The thermal performance of battery modules has a crucial role in the performance, safety, and lifetime of battery cells. Commonly, battery models are validated through experimental data to ensure the correctness of model behavior; however, the influences of experimental setups are often not considered in the laboratory environment, especially for prismatic cells such as lithium titanate oxide (LTO) battery cells used in electric vehicles. For this purpose, both experimental and numerical studies of the thermal performance of the battery module consisting of LTO cells was investigated using different cold plates used in electrical and hybrid vehicles. Three different discharging rates were applied to the battery module to obtain comparative results of the cooling performance. In the numerical simulations, heat generation models are typically used to observe the thermal behavior of the battery module; however, in the numerical study, dual potential multi-scale multi-domain (MSMD) battery models were used, with transient flow and heat transfer calculations performed. The numerical results were in good agreement with the experimental data. A new high-performance cold plate was developed for the thermal management of LTO battery cells. In comparison with the other two cold plate configurations, the proposed cold plate configuration dropped the maximum temperature up to 45% for the same operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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28 pages, 7035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation and Multi-Objective Optimization of Cold Plate Designed for the Lithium-Ion Battery Pack of an Electrical Pickup by Using Taguchi–Grey Relational Analysis

by Muhsin Kılıç, Sevgül Gamsız and Zehra Nihan Alınca

Sustainability 2023, 15(16), 12391; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612391 - 15 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1025

Abstract

It is aimed to minimize carbon emissions and the spread of electric vehicles is supported for a more sustainable future. To increase the safety and life of these vehicles, cooling systems are added and developed to their energy storage systems. The aim of this study is to design and optimize the cooling plate for the lithium-ion battery pack used in a lightweight commercial electrical vehicle. Multi-objective optimization using Taguchi–grey relational analysis was performed by considering maximum temperature, the standard deviation of temperature, and pressure drop for the design of the cold plate. Channel number, channel height, and mass flow rate values were determined as parameters to be examined, and three different levels were selected for each parameter. Analysis was performed using water and 25% and 50% ethylene glycol–water solutions, which can work under sub-zero environmental conditions, employed as cooling fluid. It is shown that increasing the ethylene glycol ratio in the coolant allows it to work in colder environmental conditions, it is relatively worsening thermal performances in the cold plate applications. A new empirical correlation is proposed to predict the Nusselt number for the three coolants under all geometric and operating conditions considered in this study. Statistical analysis shows that the number of channels is the most effective parameter for the relatively low and homogenous temperature distribution on the cold plate surface. A sensitivity analysis was performed for Reynolds number ranges from 2500 to 15,000 using the optimum configurations of the three coolant fluids. It is shown that the same cooling effects could be obtained by using 1.56 times and 2.66 times more mass flow rates for 25% and 50% ethylene glycol–water solutions, respectively, compared to the water. However, rising mass flow rates result in a significant increase in the required pumping power. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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28 pages, 12631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exergoeconomic and Exergetic Sustainability Analysis of a Combined Dual-Pressure Organic Rankine Cycle and Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

by Esra Özdemir Küçük and Muhsin Kılıç

Sustainability 2023, 15(8), 6987; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086987 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1454

Abstract

In this paper, an exergoeconomic and exergetic sustainability analysis of a dual-pressure organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and vapor compression refrigeration cycle (VCRC) driven by waste heat is performed for power generation and cooling production. In addition, the most suitable fluid couple among the thirty-five different fluid pairs was investigated for the proposed combined system. The results indicate that the highest energy utilization factor, exergy efficiency, the system coefficient of performance, and net power are calculated for the R123-R141b fluid pair. In terms of exergetic sustainability indicators, the best performance results are obtained for the R123-R141b fluid combination. The minimum unit electricity generation cost and the shortest payback period are calculated as 0.0664 $/kWh and 2.5 years, respectively, for the R123-R290 fluid pair. The system component with the highest exergy destruction is the boiler, with 21.67%. The result of the parametric analysis showed that the thermodynamic performance parameters increase with the increment of the ORC’s boiling temperature. In addition, with the increasing boiling temperature, the environmental effect factor of the system decreases, while the exergetic sustainability index increases. Additionally, as the boiling temperature increases, the total system cost increases, while the unit electricity production cost and payback period decrease. It is suggested to use a R123-R141b fluid couple among fluid pairs created as a result of thermodynamic, exergoeconomic and sustainability analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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35 pages, 10463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Machine Learning-Based Intelligent Control System for Performance Optimization of Solar PV-Powered Refrigerators

by Mohamed A. Eltawil, Maged Mohammed and Nayef M. Alqahtani

Sustainability 2023, 15(8), 6911; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086911 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1886

Abstract

Display refrigerators consume significantly high energy, and improving their efficiency is essential to minimize energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, providing the refrigeration system with a reliable and energy-efficient mechanism is a real challenge. This study aims to design and evaluate an intelligent control system (ICS) using artificial neural networks (ANN) for the performance optimization of solar-powered display refrigerators (SPDRs). The SPDR was operated using the traditional control system at a fixed frequency of 60 Hz and then operated based on variable frequencies ranging from 40 to 60 Hz using the designed ANN-based ICS combined with a variable speed drive. A stand-alone PV system provided the refrigerator with the required energy at the two control options. For the performance evaluation, the operating conditions of the SPDR after the modification of its control system were compared with its performance with a traditional control system (TCS) at target refrigeration temperatures of 1, 3, and 5 °C and ambient temperatures of 23, 29, and 35 °C. Based on the controlled variable frequency speed by the modified control system (MCS), the power, energy consumption, and coefficient of performance (COP) of the SPDR are improved. The results show that both refrigeration control mechanisms maintain the same cooling temperature, but the traditional refrigerator significantly consumes more energy (p < 0.05). At the same target cooling temperature, increasing the ambient temperature decreased the COP for the SPDR with both the TCS and MCS. The average daily COP of the SPDR varied from 2.8 to 3.83 and from 1.91 to 2.82 for the SPDR with the TCS and MCS, respectively. The comparison results of the two refrigerators’ conditions indicated that the developed ICS for the SPDR saved about 35.5% of the energy at the 5 °C target cooling temperature and worked with smoother power when the ambient temperature was high. The COP of the SPDR with the MCS was higher than the TCS by 26.37%, 26.59%, and 24.22% at the average daily ambient temperature of 23 °C, 29 °C, and 35 °C, respectively. The developed ANN-based control system optimized the SPDR and proved to be a suitable tool for the refrigeration industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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27 pages, 8416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cooling of Heated Blocks with Triangular Guide Protrusions Simulating Printed Circuit Boards

by Ebubekir Beyazoglu, Bahadir Erman Yuce, Murat Ates, Rumeysa Yalindag, Kemal Furkan Sokmen and Erhan Pulat

Sustainability 2022, 14(23), 15856; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315856 - 28 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1082

Abstract

There is no study that investigates triangular guide protrusions including their systematical geometrical changes together with the effects of channel height in the open literature in the context of the authors’ knowledge. Moreover, the number of laminar studies is less than turbulent studies, whereas low velocity or natural convection cases are still important, especially for small devices in small PCB passages. The objective of this study is to investigate numerically the effects of triangular guide protrusions for the enhancement of heat transfer from the blocks’ simulated electronic components in laminar flow conditions. Two-dimensional, incompressible, steady, and laminar flow analysis was performed to predict fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics for three heated blocks in a PCB (printed circuit board) passage with triangular guide protrusions mounted on the upper wall. The Galerkin finite element method of weighted residuals was used to discretize conservation equations. The effects of the channel expansion ratio and inlet velocity were investigated for five geometrical cases. If the size of the protrusions is increased, the existence of protrusions starts to affect the flow patterns on the lower wall. The size of the last protrusion controls the flow structure downstream of the last block. On the upper wall, after the last protrusion, a recirculation is formed and the length of the recirculation increases with an increasing Re number. Moreover, the reattachment length of recirculation after the last block increases with an increasing Reynolds number for a fixed expansion ratio. Expansion ratio and inflow conditions caused by blocks and protrusions have a great influence on the formation of secondary recirculation in addition to the Reynolds number. Heat transfer increases with increasing sizes of upper triangular protrusions. Maximum overall heat transfer enhancement is provided as 47.7% with the geometry of the maximum sized protrusions for the channel height of 3 h. In the case of 4 h, the maximum overall heat transfer enhancement is 24.21%. These enhancements in heat transfer that can be encountered in PCB cooling applications may help the PCB cooling designers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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22 pages, 2730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Conceptual Design and Analysis of a Novel Trigeneration System Consisting of a Gas Turbine Power Cycle with Intercooling, Ammonia–Water Absorption Refrigeration, and Hot Water Production

by Ayşe Fidan Altun

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 11820; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911820 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1466

Abstract

In this study, the performance of a novel trigeneration system with a gas turbine prime mover, an ammonia–water refrigeration system, and a hot water generation system is investigated from thermodynamic and economic standpoints. The effects of various operating conditions on energy efficiency and the levelized cost of energy are investigated. The proposed system has a production capacity of 45.4 kW power, 14.07 kW cooling rate, and 16.32 kW heat rate. The efficiency of the gas turbine cycle is 49.7%, and it becomes 83.0% after the implementation of the trigeneration system. Through combined heating, cooling, and power generation, primary energy input and the CO₂ emissions will be 49% lower compared to separate production. According to the exergy analysis, the combustion chamber is the main component where the greatest exergy destruction occurs. Sensitivity analysis revealed that an increase in the ambient temperature results in a decrease in the energy utilization factor and the net power output. The LCOE of the system is around 0.02 $/kWh, whereas the unit price of the local electricity from the grid is 0.09 $/kWh. The payback period of the absorption sub-cycle is between 4 months and 4 years, depending on the annual operation time of the chiller. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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20 pages, 915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

COVID-19 Pandemic: The Impacts of Crude Oil Price Shock on Nigeria’s Economy, Legal and Policy Options

by Olusola Joshua Olujobi, Elizabeta Smaranda Olarinde, Tunde Ebenezer Yebisi and Uchechukwu Emena Okorie

Sustainability 2022, 14(18), 11166; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811166 - 6 Sep 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4162

Abstract

The outbreak of the COVID-19 disease has gravely shaken the world economy. The economies of many countries have come under severe strain; Nigeria’s petroleum industry has been particularly affected. This has threatened the countries’ budgets and other essential needs involved in citizens’ welfare. The government is taking drastic measures to combat this scourge, with few results. This study adopts a doctrinal legal research approach and considers both the primary and secondary sources of law, such as judicial precedents, international conventions, and peer-reviewed journals. Legal theories were also applied as an academic lens for modelling the research. The justification for using the method was to establish the trustworthiness of the findings on the impacts of crude oil price shock on Nigeria’s economy, its legal and policy options. This study investigates the influences of oil price shock on the country’s economy and the legal remedies required to build economic resilience to mitigate future contingencies. The study argues that the provisions of the extant laws can be utilised as a preventive mechanism for tackling the impacts of oil price shock on Nigeria’s economy. The study recommends other remedial measures, such as diversification from oil and gas to non-oil sectors. The study designed a hybrid model for mitigating the influences of crude oil prices on the country’s extractive wealth. The study advocates for the need for an effective legal regime to shield the domestic economy from international oil price instability. The implications of the main results are that crude oil production and prices play a significant role in real growth enhancement. However, they exert a negative but unsustainable standard innovation on growth, which could be mitigated through appropriate legal and policy options. Nigeria needs stringent, transparent, and the best petroleum management practice laws to manage its petroleum sector’s revenues for sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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Review

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38 pages, 1557 KiB

Open AccessReview

Evaluation of Combined Thermal–Mechanical Compression Systems: A Review for Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling

by Muhsin Kılıç

Sustainability 2022, 14(21), 13724; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113724 - 23 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

The aim of this study is to assess the state-of-the-art situation of mechanical compressors with thermal compressor systems in combined cooling systems and their ability to provide the required cooling effects with lower energy consumption than traditional cooling systems. The integrated systems have various advantages such as a broad temperature range, low energy consumption, and more flexibility in operating conditions. A comprehensive review of thermal–mechanical combined cooling systems is presented in terms of its principles, applications, different configurations, and various heat source systems. Two types of thermal compressor systems are included in this study. The first one is the absorption system that uses a liquid–vapor working pair in its thermodynamic cycle. Additionally, the second type is the adsorption system that utilizes a solid–vapor working pair in its thermodynamic cycle. It is concluded that continuing technological innovations are vital for sustainable cooling. Technological developments can lead to cooling that is both inexpensive and energy-efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Sustainable Cooling Systems)

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