Sports

14 pages, 1566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Re-Warm-Up During Resistance Training: Analysis of Mechanical and Physiological Variables

by Pedro P. Neves, Diogo L. Marques, Henrique P. Neiva, Daniel A. Marinho, Ricardo Ferraz, Mário C. Marques and Ana R. Alves

Sports 2025, 13(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050142 - 7 May 2025

Abstract

Objectives: This study examined the effects of re-warm-up versus no re-warm-up before squats or bench presses on mechanical, physiological, and psychophysiological responses in recreationally trained men. Methods: Twenty-two participants (22.8 ± 3.3 years) completed four randomized sessions involving different re-warm-up and exercise sequences. [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study examined the effects of re-warm-up versus no re-warm-up before squats or bench presses on mechanical, physiological, and psychophysiological responses in recreationally trained men. Methods: Twenty-two participants (22.8 ± 3.3 years) completed four randomized sessions involving different re-warm-up and exercise sequences. Measurements included heart rate, blood lactate, tympanic temperature, and perceived exertion. Key performance metrics, such as mean propulsive velocity, peak velocity, power, velocity loss, and effort index, were analyzed. Results: Findings revealed that re-warming up before squats (W + BP + RW + SQ) significantly enhanced propulsive velocity and power compared to no re-warm-up (W + BP + SQ) (p ≤ 0.05; d = 0.45–0.62). However, re-warming up before the bench press (W + SQ + RW + BP) did not improve mechanical performance compared to the standard sequence (W + SQ + BP) (p > 0.05; d = 0.10–0.38). Notably, velocity loss and effort index were higher in the third bench press set under the W + SQ + BP condition (p ≤ 0.05; d = 0.53–0.60). No significant differences in physiological or psychophysiological responses were found between conditions. Conclusions: Overall, re-warm-up effectively improved squat mechanical performance when performed after the bench press but had a minimal impact on the bench press when performed after squats. These findings suggest that re-warming up before lower-body exercises may enhance mechanical performance, while its benefits may be less pronounced for upper-body exercises. Full article

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13 pages, 650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Perceptual-Cognitive Skills in College Elite Athletes: An Analysis of Differences Across Competitive Levels

by Kuo-Cheng Wu, Hui-Chun Lin, Zi-Yi Cheng, Chih-Han Chang, Jo-Ning Chang, Hsia-Ling Tai and Su-I Liu

Sports 2025, 13(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050141 - 30 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Athletes with expertise in sports show extensive procedural and factual information, enhancing their ability to focus attention, use cues, and anticipate events. This study examined the differentiation of perceptual-cognitive skills by focusing on attentional cues, processing speed, and working memory. Methods: The [...] Read more.

Background: Athletes with expertise in sports show extensive procedural and factual information, enhancing their ability to focus attention, use cues, and anticipate events. This study examined the differentiation of perceptual-cognitive skills by focusing on attentional cues, processing speed, and working memory. Methods: The component skill approach was used to assess differences in sports expertise levels using non-sport-specific cognitive measures of perceptual-cognitive skills. The study involved a total of 127 college athletes with a mean age of 20.23 years (SD = 3.08) and an average of 10.99 years of training. Among these participants, there were 43 female athletes with a mean age of 20.23 years (SD = 3.32) and 84 male athletes with a mean age of 20.22 years (SD = 2.98). We analyzed the cohort of students who did not engage in regular sports training, identifying them as the control group for our study. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was employed to analyze the measures of the SPT and CBT perceptual-cognitive tasks, treating them as separate dependent variables. The categorization of elite levels and participants is outlined below: there are 41 semi-elite athletes, 70 competitive elite athletes, 12 successful elite athletes, and 4 world-class elite athletes. Results: There were no differences in semi-elite and competitive elite athletes’ perceptual-cognitive skills regarding visual-spatial reaction time (Wilks’ λ = 0.956, p > 0.05), but there was a significant difference in the working memory span (Wilks’ λ = 0.804, p < 0.05). Conclusions: The study reports that elite college athletes have higher working memory, which is crucial for sport performance, compared to semi-elite athletes. However, no between-group differences were observed in reaction time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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11 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Physiological Changes Across a Sport Season in a Nine-Time World-Champion Triathlete: A Case Report

by Adrian Gonzalez-Custodio, Carmen Crespo, Rafael Timon and Guillermo Olcina

Sports 2025, 13(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050140 - 30 Apr 2025

Abstract

This case report analyses the physiological changes of a nine-time world champion triathlete over a competitive season. The triathlete, aged 34, resumed training after a 3-month injury-related break. The study monitored key physiological variables at three points: pre-season (PRE), base period (BASE), and [...] Read more.

This case report analyses the physiological changes of a nine-time world champion triathlete over a competitive season. The triathlete, aged 34, resumed training after a 3-month injury-related break. The study monitored key physiological variables at three points: pre-season (PRE), base period (BASE), and peak performance (PEAK). The athlete trained an average of 25,000 m swimming, 400 km cycling, and 90 km running weekly. Incremental cycling tests were performed at each stage, measuring power output, oxygen uptake (VO₂), ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2), muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂), heart rate, and lactate levels. Results showed significant improvements in relative power output (+37.2% at VT1), VO₂ max (+12.6%), and body composition (body fat reduced from 10.43% to 7.33%). Heart rate and lactate concentration remained stable, while SmO₂ showed a greater difference between VT2 and peak performance. The triathlete achieved top-10 finishes in all key events, including a win at the Ironman 70.3 World Championship. The findings suggest that elite triathletes can regain peak performance after injury through structured training, with improvements in ventilatory efficiency and body composition contributing to better competition results. This study provides valuable insights for coaches on the recovery and performance optimization of elite triathletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Sport for a Healthy Life)

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12 pages, 589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between the Total Quality Recovery Scale and Race Performance in Competitive College Swimmers over Two Seasons

by Tsuyoshi Kato, Ryota Kasugai and Kensuke Sakai

Sports 2025, 13(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050139 - 30 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Tapering, a period of reduced training load following intense training, contributes to performance enhancement. However, research on recovery status during tapering is limited. This study investigates the impact of recovery status on race performance. Methods: Total quality recovery (TQR) scale scores were [...] Read more.

Background: Tapering, a period of reduced training load following intense training, contributes to performance enhancement. However, research on recovery status during tapering is limited. This study investigates the impact of recovery status on race performance. Methods: Total quality recovery (TQR) scale scores were monitored over two seasons in 22 college competitive swimmers (age: 19.7 ± 1.8 years), including 6 females. They participated voluntarily in the study. Rolling averages (TQRra) and exponentially weighted moving averages (TQRewma) over 7, 14, 21, and 28 days before the race were calculated. Performance data from 550 race days were analyzed by quartiles, and odds ratios were computed for TQR-related variables against race performance improvements. Results: The median TQR was 11 (interquartile range: 10–13). Seasonal bests were achieved in 31.6% of races (174 of 550). The highest odds ratios (ORs) for performance improvement in the highest quartile (Q4) of TQR and z-TQR were 3.13 (p < 0.001) and 4.35 (p < 0.001), respectively. Significant ratios for TQRewma were observed for 7d:21d (OR: 2.62, p < 0.001) and 7d:28d (OR: 2.48, p < 0.001) comparisons. Conclusions: Better recovery status on race day has been associated with improved swimming performance. Additionally, optimizing the TQRewma ratio of the most recent 7 days compared to the preceding 21 to 28 days may further enhance race performance. It highlights the need to monitor an athlete’s recovery over several weeks as an important pre-race strategy. Full article

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11 pages, 1945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Initial Effects of Dynamic Tape on Foot Arch Height Under Cyclic Loading: A Pilot Study Among University Students

by Ting-Chen Chang, Po-Cheng Cheng, Yu-Hsuan Chung, Chih-Wei Chang, Yen-Nien Chen and Chia-Jung Chang

Sports 2025, 13(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050138 - 30 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Dynamic tape is one of the options for supporting the foot arch in the management of arch-related disorders. However, its mechanical effects on the foot arch remain unclear, particularly under cyclic loading. This study aims to investigate the initial effects of dynamic [...] Read more.

Background: Dynamic tape is one of the options for supporting the foot arch in the management of arch-related disorders. However, its mechanical effects on the foot arch remain unclear, particularly under cyclic loading. This study aims to investigate the initial effects of dynamic taping on maintaining foot arch height under cyclic loading among university students. Methods: Thirty-three asymptomatic participants were enrolled in this study. The dynamic tape was applied to the foot with the lower arch to provide support, and the other foot remained untaped as a control. The tape was applied without pre-tension and simply laid straight. Changes in bilateral foot arch height and index were measured using a commercial foot sole morphology assessment device and compared after 6 and 12 min of walking. Results: The arch height did not decrease significantly after walking for 6 or 12 min in either the taped or untaped foot. However, the arch index of the taped foot increased significantly (from 0.258 ± 0.086 to 0.273 ± 0.085) after 12 min of walking, whereas no significant change was observed in the untaped foot. Conclusions: This study is the first to evaluate the initial effect of dynamic tape applied without pre-tension on foot arch support by directly measuring sole morphology using a pin-array impression device. The results indicate that dynamic tape without pre-tension does not effectively prevent the immediate reduction in foot arch height after application. Further research is needed to determine the optimal balance between pre-tension and therapeutic efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Walking and Running: Health and Injury Prevention)

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102 pages, 647 KiB

Open AccessConference Report

Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS) 7th Annual Meeting, Murcia, Spain, 2024

by Pedro E. Alcaraz, Konstantinos Spyrou, Anthony J. Blazevich, Tomás T. Freitas, Elena Marín-Cascales and Aarón Manzanares Serrano

Sports 2025, 13(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050137 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), we are pleased to present the abstracts submitted for the SCS 7th Annual Meeting. The event was held at the Universidad Católica de Murcia (UCAM) headquarters in Murcia, Spain, on 9–11 October 2024, and [...] Read more.

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), we are pleased to present the abstracts submitted for the SCS 7th Annual Meeting. The event was held at the Universidad Católica de Murcia (UCAM) headquarters in Murcia, Spain, on 9–11 October 2024, and comprised several invited sessions by international and national speakers on a variety of topics related to biochemistry and exercise physiology, strength and conditioning practices and their application to health, injury prevention, and sports performance. These included strength training in high-performance sports, sport science and training–competition load management in elite environments, biochemistry and exercise physiology and prescription, nutrition and biomechanics, among others. The conference also included practical workshops by renowned academics and practitioners on eccentric training, change of direction ability, and strength and power training in professional team sports, combat sports, and ergospirometry and exercise prescription in specific populations. Finally, the event disseminated up-to-date strength and conditioning research by providing practitioners and researchers with the opportunity to present their most recent findings. All abstracts presented at the SCS 7th Annual Meeting can be found in this Conference Report. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning Society 2024: Sports Performance, Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Health Improvement)

19 pages, 2386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Putting the Fe into Female Athletes: Insights into Heightened Iron Status and Women’s Australian Football Performance—A Case Study

by Michael Pengelly, Kate Pumpa, David Bruce Pyne and Naroa Etxebarria

Sports 2025, 13(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050136 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Iron deficiency affects up to 70% of female athletes, yet the effectiveness of improving iron status in team sport athletes remains unclear. Purpose: To evaluate the impact of variations in iron status on physical performance in elite female Australian Rules Football players. [...] Read more.

Background: Iron deficiency affects up to 70% of female athletes, yet the effectiveness of improving iron status in team sport athletes remains unclear. Purpose: To evaluate the impact of variations in iron status on physical performance in elite female Australian Rules Football players. Methods: Iron status was measured in 30 players (age 23 ± 4 y; body mass 70 ± 6 kg) across three time-points of a 24-week season. Players identified as iron deficient non-anemic stage 2 in week 1 received an iron infusion. Remaining players were categorized into heightened iron status (FeUP; iron deficient non-anemic stage 1 players who were advised to take iron supplementation; n = 8) or non-supplemented (Ctrl; week 10: n = 17; week 24: n = 16) groups following week 10. Relative external load measures (e.g., total distance at different velocities), and strength and power measures (e.g., counter-movement jump, reactive strength index) were recorded in weeks 10 and 24 (same weeks as blood samples) to compare physical performance between FeUP and Ctrl groups. Results: Iron status improved in FeUP (30 µg/L to 49 µg/L) and reduced in Ctrl (39 µg/L to 34 µg/L) between weeks 10 and 24. Iron deficiency prevalence among all players was 47–54%. FeUp exhibited small to moderate improvements (5–19%) in some external load measures but no consistent improvement across all measures. At week 24, FeUP showed trivial to moderate differences outperforming Ctrl in seven physical performance measures (e.g., both hip adduction tests), but Ctrl outperformed FeUP in all other measures. Conclusion: Heightened iron status does not consistently enhance physical performance, although avoiding deficiency remains essential for athlete health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Performance and Promoting Health Through Nutrition)

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13 pages, 901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Unilateral Strength Training Optimize Change of Direction Mechanics and Mitigate Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk in Female Soccer Players? A Preliminary Pre–Post Intervention Study

by Alice Rogalski, Ayrton Moiroux-Sahraoui, Maria Stergiou, Maxence Pieulhet, Maurice Douryang and Florian Forelli

Sports 2025, 13(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050135 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a major concern in female soccer players, with change of direction (COD) movements being a key contributor to non-contact injuries. Traditional injury prevention programs have shown limited effectiveness in addressing individual biomechanical deficits. This study aimed [...] Read more.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a major concern in female soccer players, with change of direction (COD) movements being a key contributor to non-contact injuries. Traditional injury prevention programs have shown limited effectiveness in addressing individual biomechanical deficits. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a 10-week unilateral strength training program on COD mechanics and ACL injury risk factors. Methods: Eleven female soccer players participated in a pre–post intervention study. Movement mechanics was assessed using the Cutting Movement Assessment Score (CMAS) at 45°, 75°, and 90° angles. The training program included unilateral lower limb strengthening exercises designed to enhance neuromuscular control and reduce biomechanical risk factors. Risk profiles were analyzed before and after the intervention. Statistical analyses included paired t-tests and effect size calculations. Results: Significant improvements in CMAS scores were observed at all COD angles (p < 0.05), with the largest effect at 90° (Cohen’s d = 2.1). The percentage of high-risk players decreased from 82% to 0%, while the proportion of low-risk players increased from 36% to 73%. Improved knee alignment, foot placement, and trunk stability were key contributors to the observed movement enhancements. Conclusions: Unilateral strength training may effectively improve COD mechanics and reduces biomechanical risk factors associated with ACL injuries in female soccer players. Our findings suggest that individualized training interventions can influence current injury prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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10 pages, 939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Consensus of Return-to-Play Criteria After Adductor Longus Injury in Professional Soccer

by José Luis Estévez Rodríguez, Jesús Rivilla García, Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz and Sergio Jiménez-Rubio

Sports 2025, 13(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050134 - 27 Apr 2025

Abstract

Return to play (RTP) decision making in professional soccer is crucial for minimising re-injury risk, reducing financial burdens on clubs, and optimising player performance. Despite its significance, there is a lack of objective criteria and consensus on RTP for adductor longus injuries, one [...] Read more.

Return to play (RTP) decision making in professional soccer is crucial for minimising re-injury risk, reducing financial burdens on clubs, and optimising player performance. Despite its significance, there is a lack of objective criteria and consensus on RTP for adductor longus injuries, one of the most common muscle injuries in soccer. The aim of the present consensus was to validate an RTP protocol based on clinical, functional, and performance criteria through expert evaluation. This study hypothesises that a validated RTP protocol for adductor longus injuries will enhance decision making, reduce re-injury rates, and improve player performance upon return. An observational survey was designed to validate an RTP protocol through an expert panel. A total of 63 injury-management professionals (strength and conditioning coaches, physiotherapists, doctors, and rehabilitation fitness coaches) with an average experience of 12.02 ± 6.87 years participated in validating a 20-criteria RTP protocol. The protocol, divided into clinical, functional, and performance criteria, was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Aiken’s V coefficient was calculated for content validity, with criteria validated if Aiken’s V ≥ 0.75. Out of 20 initial RTP criteria, 14 were validated by the expert panel, with Aiken’s V ranging from 0.77 to 0.94 (overall range: 0.61–0.98). Key validated criteria included pain on palpation, flexibility, imaging, athlete feedback, strength assessments, movement quality, pre-injury GPS data, and performance under simulated match conditions. Criteria such as the Copenhagen adduction exercise and specific agility tests were not validated. The expert-validated RTP protocol for adductor longus injuries provides a structured approach to decision making, potentially reducing re-injury risk, improving rehabilitation strategies, and enhancing player performance. These findings could be integrated into clinical sports-medicine practices to enhance rehabilitation effectiveness and RTP decisions in professional soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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10 pages, 236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender-Based Analysis of Oral Health Outcomes Among Elite Athletes

by Alejandro Carlos de la Parte-Serna, Francesca Monticelli, Francisco Pradas, Miguel Lecina and Alejandro García-Giménez

Sports 2025, 13(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050133 - 27 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims [...] Read more.

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims to analyse the differences in oral health status among elite athletes based on gender. A total of 186 elite athletes (150 men and 36 women) recognised in the region of Aragon (Spain) participated in this study (mean age 24.99 ± 9.34), all of whom practise individual sports. Methods: Oral health status analysis included: periodontal, malocclusion and tooth status measured using the restoration index (RI) and the decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT) index. Results: Women had fewer teeth, a lower restoration index (p < 0.05) and lower DMFT index values (p < 0.001); furthermore, this group showed a greater number of missing teeth (p < 0.001) and decayed teeth (p < 0.05). There were no statistical differences in malocclusion, plaque, gingival bleeding, dental erosion or bruxism values between the genders. Mouthguard usage was low (men = 9.4% vs. women = 14.3%; p = 0.57). Conclusions: This study highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach to address the high prevalence of oral health issues among elite athletes, despite the differences in health status between men and women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competition and Sports Training: A Challenge for Public Health)

16 pages, 1128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Imagination on Performance in Ballet: A Case Study

by Eisa Alokla, Maximilian Stasica, Martin Puttke, Vahid Firouzi, Maziar Ahmad Sharbafi and André Seyfarth

Sports 2025, 13(5), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050132 - 24 Apr 2025

Abstract

Mental images such as foci of attention can significantly enhance the quality of movements, providing a positive effect on human performance, e.g., in dancers or athletes. Thirteen participants (height = 161 ± 13 cm, mass = 46.4 ± 17.3 kg, and age = [...] Read more.

Mental images such as foci of attention can significantly enhance the quality of movements, providing a positive effect on human performance, e.g., in dancers or athletes. Thirteen participants (height = 161 ± 13 cm, mass = 46.4 ± 17.3 kg, and age = 21 ± 8.4 years) with varying levels of experience in classical ballet were divided into three groups (amateur, professional, and children). Each participant performed three sauté en suite jumps, followed by an instruction to imagine “taking the floor with them” during the jump. The study aimed to assess the effect of this external focus on jumping performance using biomechanical modeling. Results showed a statistically significant increase in jump height and an expanded range of motion in the hip and knee joints after the intervention, suggesting a positive influence on movement quality. However, results varied among groups, with no significant change in leg stiffness across participants, though tendencies appeared within each group. These findings indicate that an external focus of attention could be a useful tool in dance pedagogy, enhancing performance quality across experience levels and supporting individual progress. The study recommends further research to explore the full impact of psychologically effective instructions on various aspects of physical performance. Full article

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20 pages, 3854 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review Articles on Soccer Performance Analysis: A Bibliometric Analysis of Current Trends and Emerging Themes

by Spyridon Plakias

Sports 2025, 13(5), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050131 - 24 Apr 2025

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze review articles on soccer performance analysis (PA) using a bibliometric approach to address three main research questions: (a) How has the publication of review articles related to soccer PA evolved over time? (b) Which authors and journals [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze review articles on soccer performance analysis (PA) using a bibliometric approach to address three main research questions: (a) How has the publication of review articles related to soccer PA evolved over time? (b) Which authors and journals have been the most influential in this field and what are the collaboration networks between them? (c) What are the dominant topics, methodological issues, and gaps in the relevant literature? Methods: A systematic search was conducted in the Scopus database on 24 January 2025, using a comprehensive Boolean expression to identify relevant review articles. The extracted data were analyzed using VOSviewer (1.6.20.0). We employed bibliometric performance analysis, science mapping, and clustering techniques including co-authorship, co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling, and co-citation analyses. Results: The study included 314 review articles, demonstrating an exponential increase in publications since 2017. The most influential journal was Sports Medicine, while the leading authors included F. M. Clemente and H. Sarmento. Co-occurrence analysis revealed five thematic clusters covering physical performance, nutrition, coaching strategies, tactical analysis, and emerging data-driven approaches. Notably, significant gaps in the literature were identified in the areas of set pieces, key performance indicators, and contextual variables. Conclusions: This bibliometric analysis, creating a comprehensive map of the review articles on soccer PA, highlights the diverse and interdisciplinary nature of soccer PA research, identifies gaps in the literature, and offers practical considerations for researchers and journal editors aiming to advance the field of soccer PA. Full article

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13 pages, 990 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Mental Game of Tennis: A Scoping Review and the Introduction of the Resilience Racket Model

by Gerasimos N. Konstantinou, Stefan Kloiber and Daniel M. Blumberger

Sports 2025, 13(5), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050130 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

This review examines the relationship between tennis participation and mental health, highlighting both the psychological benefits and challenges associated with the sport. Using a retrospective, citation-based methodology, peer-reviewed studies published in English, French, and Greek between 2000 and March 2025 were included. The [...] Read more.

This review examines the relationship between tennis participation and mental health, highlighting both the psychological benefits and challenges associated with the sport. Using a retrospective, citation-based methodology, peer-reviewed studies published in English, French, and Greek between 2000 and March 2025 were included. The findings indicate that tennis participation is associated with reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms, improved self-confidence, and enhanced resilience. However, competitive tennis also presents significant psychological demands, including elevated stress levels and susceptibility to maladaptive coping behaviors. To address these complexities, this review introduces the Resilience Racket Model, a conceptual framework representing the integration of physical readiness, psychological resilience, and systemic support. The model uses the metaphor of a tennis racket: the handle reflects foundational physical skills; the strings represent resilience components; the frame denotes environmental and organizational support; and the sweet spot signifies the optimal balance between physical and mental readiness. The review also highlights the effectiveness of psychological interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and mindfulness, in supporting athlete well-being. These findings advocate for a holistic approach to athlete development, emphasizing parity between mental health and physical training, and call for further research into tailored, sport-specific mental health interventions in tennis. Full article

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17 pages, 1844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Responses to 5 K Time Trial Load Carried by Spanish Army Marines

by Beltrán Cáceres-Diego, Pedro E. Alcaraz and Cristian Marín-Pagán

Sports 2025, 13(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040129 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

One of the physical requirements for marines involves covering a specific distance while carrying individual combat gear, supplies, or other military equipment across challenging terrain. Training for this physically and mentally demanding task is a routine component of their preparation. However, further research [...] Read more.

One of the physical requirements for marines involves covering a specific distance while carrying individual combat gear, supplies, or other military equipment across challenging terrain. Training for this physically and mentally demanding task is a routine component of their preparation. However, further research is needed to better understand the neuromuscular impact of such demanding efforts, strenuous maneuvers, and the recovery process in the subsequent days. Twenty-nine marines completed a 5 km time trial while carrying 24 kg of combat gear, undergoing evaluations at four time points: pre exercise, immediately post exercise, 24 h post exercise, and 48 h post exercise. Repeated measures ANOVA, paired samples t-test, and effect size (ES) analysis were conducted, presenting the results as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Several variables and their corresponding p-values demonstrated changes over time, including the following: the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) (p = 0.001); countermovement jump height (VJ CMJ) (p ≤ 0.001); rating of fatigue scale (ROF) (p ≤ 0.001); blood lactate (BL) levels (p ≤ 0.001); maximum pull-ups (PUmax) (p ≤ 0.001); body mass (BM) (p ≤ 0.001); dominant hand grip strength (DHGS) (p = 0.406); and non-dominant hand grip strength (NDHGS) (p = 0.805). Incident reports and perceived effort (IRPE) revealed a progressive and significant increase between the first and last kilometer of the test, specifically in perceived variables of fatigue, muscle pain, joint pain, shortness of breath, palpitations, excessive sweating, and muscle tremors (all p ≤ 0.001). These findings may contribute to optimizing training programs to better align with operational demands, thereby improving task performance and overall mission effectiveness. In conclusion, the military test had a significant neuromuscular impact on the body, initially resulting in the potentiation of absolute global isometric strength and lower-limb power. However, these values declined below the baseline levels at 24 and 48 h post test. Full article

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15 pages, 1578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Perception of Effort as a Basis for Improving Physical Efficacy and Efficiency in Italian Military School Students

by Gabriele Signorini, Raffaele Scurati, Andrea Bosio, Maurizio Pizzoli, Angelo Pagano, Gaetano Raiola and Pietro Luigi Invernizzi

Sports 2025, 13(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040128 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Military schools primarily aim to prepare young people for the admission procedures of military academies. In this specific environment, the high overall load can generate burnout in cadets and the consequent failure to achieve scholastic and military objectives. The present study investigated how [...] Read more.

Military schools primarily aim to prepare young people for the admission procedures of military academies. In this specific environment, the high overall load can generate burnout in cadets and the consequent failure to achieve scholastic and military objectives. The present study investigated how a training protocol based entirely on internal load and a reflective approach in a military-type school context affects participants’ physical efficacy, efficiency, and psychological outcomes. For this study, 63 cadets who were 17 years old from an Italian military school were recruited. Twenty-two of them were allocated into a control group (CG), twenty-one were allocated into a group exercising based on external load (EG), and twenty we allocated into a group exercising based on internal load (IG). All groups performed tests of physical efficacy (maximal tests) and physical efficiency (self-perception-based submaximal test) and answered psychological questionnaires to assess motivation, self-efficacy, and enjoyment. Group participants attended eight weeks of interventions in which physical education lessons were led as follows: the EG performed a circuit training at 50% of maximal repetitions, the IG performed a circuit training at value six on Borg’s scale, and the CG attended curricular physical education lessons. Tests were then repeated. The IG increased physical efficacy more than the EG and CG, while only the IG increased physical efficiency. The IG and EG improved in psychological variables more than the CG. Education in self-perception and self-regulation could help cadets better manage their psychophysical status, allowing them to reach the physical demands for academic admission. Full article

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11 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peer Violence in Youth Sport: Do Age, Year of Training, and Type of Sport Affect Outcomes?

by Brigita Banjac, Ivana M. Milovanovic, Radenko M. Matic, Stevo Popovic, Zeljka Bojanic, Emanuele Isidori and Patrik Drid

Sports 2025, 13(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040127 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: In sports and physical activities, destructive behaviors such as aggression and violence are not uncommon. Although sports and physical activities have many benefits, they can also have negative consequences. This study aimed to investigate the factors that can contribute to the manifestation [...] Read more.

Background: In sports and physical activities, destructive behaviors such as aggression and violence are not uncommon. Although sports and physical activities have many benefits, they can also have negative consequences. This study aimed to investigate the factors that can contribute to the manifestation of aggression and interpersonal violence (IV). The variables incorporated were the athletes’ age, sports experience (training years), and type of sport. Methods: This study included n = 2091 youth athletes (aged between 11 and 18 years) from Serbia, with a cross-sectional study design. The data were collected through a questionnaire and analyzed using the Chi-square and Mann–Whitney U tests in IBM SPSS. Results: The athletes’ ages and the types of sports (collective and contact) in which they participated are associated with aggression and IV manifestation. In addition, physical violence tends to be more common among older athletes in collective and contact sports, while psychological violence is more prevalent among older athletes who train for five or more years and participate in collective and non-contact sports. Conclusions: Identifying some of the correlated factors in aggression and IV manifestation among youth athletes could help in the development of strategies to reduce these destructive behaviors in youth sports. Full article

20 pages, 750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Training Considerations for Futsal Players According to Strength and Conditioning Coaches: A Qualitative Study

by Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, David Navarrete-Villanueva, Elena Mainer-Pardos, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero, Borja Muniz-Pardos and Germán Vicente-Rodríguez

Sports 2025, 13(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040126 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to [...] Read more.

The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to optimize their performance. Two video-recorded focus groups consisting of eight strength and conditioning coaches from the Spanish futsal league’s first and second divisions were transcribed, translated, and analyzed using a content analysis approach with open-ended questions on physical preparation and current practices. Results showed that strength and conditioning coaches prioritized five main areas: (1) competitive demands, (2) training load control and monitoring, (3) injury risk mitigation strategies, (4) contextual factors and interpersonal relationships, and (5) training methodologies to optimize performance. However, they also claim to deal with several limitations such as lack of time, limited resources and access to facilities, insufficient staff, problems related to combining sport with other activities (e.g., work), or the difficulty to individualize, which limits the optimization of their practices. Based on these findings, practical applications include implementing neuromuscular and strength training sessions at least twice a week, using cost-effective load monitoring tools (e.g., RPE and wellness questionnaires) to manage workloads, individualizing training programs to address the specific demands and characteristics of each player, and fostering close multidisciplinary collaboration to optimize performance and reduce injury risks. These insights can guide current and aspiring strength and conditioning coaches toward optimized practices. This study can assist novice strength and conditioning coaches in identifying the key focus areas of elite physical trainers and understanding their challenges and limitations, fostering collaboration among sports professionals to create a more optimized environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

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19 pages, 1145 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Motivational Level of Performance Swimmers and Its Impact on the Risk of Sports Dropout

by Valentina Brat, Aura Bota, Georgeta Mitrache and Silvia Teodorescu

Sports 2025, 13(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040125 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Motivation is a crucial factor in maintaining athletic performance and preventing dropout among competitive athletes. This process is influenced by both physical and psychosocial factors, which interact and shape decision—making regarding continued participation or withdrawal from sports. Aim: This study examines the [...] Read more.

Background: Motivation is a crucial factor in maintaining athletic performance and preventing dropout among competitive athletes. This process is influenced by both physical and psychosocial factors, which interact and shape decision—making regarding continued participation or withdrawal from sports. Aim: This study examines the motivational level of competitive swimmers in Romania, related to the dropout perspective. Methods: In order to conduct the research, the AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory)—a validated psychometric tool was used in two distinct phases, conducted six months apart. The study included N = 20 swimmers, finalists and medalists in national swimming competitions. The intervention consisted of motivational coaching, personalized training plans, and the development of mental skills. Results: The results highlighted significant improvements in dimensions such as success confidence, compensatory effort, and goal-setting, indicating the positive effects of the intervention on athletes’ motivation. Inferential analysis using Student t-test confirmed significant differences between the initial and final assessments, for eagerness to learn (p = 0.035), status orientation (p = 0.03) and the Wilcoxon test revealed significant difference for general motivational index (p = 0.020). Conclusions: The findings underscore the importance of psychological approaches in training high-performance athletes, showing that maintaining motivation and clarifying goals are essential factors in preventing sports dropout. The conclusions of this research can serve as a foundation for developing coaching strategies aimed at supporting continuity in performance swimming and reducing the dropout rate among competitive swimmers. Our findings confirm similar studies emphasizing the role of the training patterns and coach influence not just on the performing athlete, but also on his psychosocial individual development. Full article

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15 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Controlled Physical Activity with Weight Loss and Less Limitations for Hypertensive Patients

by Roxana Cristina Rad Bodan, Adina Octavia Dușe, Eniko Gabriela Papp, Răzvan Marian Melinte and Minodora Andor

Sports 2025, 13(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040124 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: The overweight population is a major public health problem which is typical for the 21st century, considering the peak of the noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). The connection between hypertension—the number-one risk factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)—and the body mass index (BMI), which is [...] Read more.

Background: The overweight population is a major public health problem which is typical for the 21st century, considering the peak of the noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). The connection between hypertension—the number-one risk factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)—and the body mass index (BMI), which is growing worldwide, needs to be taken into consideration. Methods: Four homogeneous groups of twenty-five patients each with hypertension degree 1 benefited from different 8-week recovery programs: recommendation for a healthy lifestyle (all groups—A, B, C and D), antihypertensive medication (groups B, C and D), physical therapy program (group C), and hydrotherapy program (group D). Four parameters were pursued: body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (Wcir.), and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP-DBP). Results: Intragroup comparison between initial and final testing registered a statistically significant decrease in all parameters for group C: BMI (p = 0.001), Wcir, SBP and DBP (p < 0.0001). Additionally, parameters of group D decreased significantly: BMI (p = 0.0005), Wcir, SBP and DBP (each p < 0.0001). Group A registered a statistical increase in the DPB parameter (p = 0.03), and group B had a significant decrease in SBP (p = 0.03). Conclusions: Implication in established physical therapy and hydrotherapy had a better outcome in diminishing all four parameters compared to the recommendations for a healthy lifestyle when patients had to improve their lifestyle by themselves, unsupervised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

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