Sports

16 pages, 274 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Inter-Limb Asymmetry in Relation to Peak Height Velocity and Injury-Related Variables in Adolescent Male Soccer Players

by Alberto Roso-Moliner, Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, Demetrio Lozano, Borja Sancho-Monllor, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero and José Luis Arjol-Serrano

Sports 2026, 14(6), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060227 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and [...] Read more.

Adolescent footballers exhibit smaller change of direction (COD) deficits than adults, suggesting distinct biomechanical profiles; however, the role of physical performance variables in COD, considering maturation and injury-related factors, remains poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the relationships between sprint, jump, and COD performance, maturation status, and injury-related variables in young male footballers. Fifty-six national-level players (age: 16.67 ± 0.86 years) performed unilateral vertical and horizontal jump tests, 20 m linear sprint tests, and 180° COD assessments. Maturation status was estimated using peak height velocity (PHV), and injury incidence and severity were recorded over one competitive season. Associations were observed between PHV and sprint performance during the initial acceleration phase (0–10 m; p < 0.01). Unilateral jump measures were associated with sprint and COD performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetries showed limited associations with performance outcomes. Horizontal jump performance was also associated with the percentage-based COD deficit (%CODD). With respect to injury-related variables, injury incidence was associated with countermovement jump (CMJ) measures, with greater CMJ asymmetry being associated with higher injury incidence, while both unilateral CMJ variables were retained in the regression model. Overall, these findings suggest that biological maturation and unilateral neuromuscular performance may be relevant factors associated with youth football performance, whereas inter-limb asymmetry appears to play a more limited role; CMJ-related measures may warrant further consideration in relation to injury incidence in adolescent footballers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Research to Optimize Performance and Reduce Injury Risk in Team Sports)

25 pages, 818 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Velocity-Based French Contrast Training on Lower-Limb Power and Delivery Kinetics in Medium-Fast Cricket Bowlers: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Qidong Zhao and Chunlei Li

Sports 2026, 14(6), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060226 - 1 Jun 2026

Abstract

The bowling performance of cricket fast bowlers is highly dependent on lower limb power and stiffness. French Contrast Training (FCT) and Velocity-Based Training (VBT) are effective ways to improve rate of force development and peak power. The objective of this study was to [...] Read more.

The bowling performance of cricket fast bowlers is highly dependent on lower limb power and stiffness. French Contrast Training (FCT) and Velocity-Based Training (VBT) are effective ways to improve rate of force development and peak power. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of VBT-optimized FCT on the lower limb explosive power and bowling performance of cricket fast bowlers. Twenty adult male medium-fast bowlers volunteered for this study and were evenly divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). The EG underwent an 8-week VBT-based FCT program, while the CG completed 8 weeks of traditional resistance training combined with traditional plyometric training. Before and after the intervention, subjects were tested on their Bulgarian split squat load–velocity profile, general lower limb power (countermovement jump height, squat jump height, Eccentric Utilization Ratio, and Reactive Strength Index), and bowling performance metrics (front foot contact time, peak force, impulse, front knee angle at ball release, and ball release speed). The results demonstrated that the EG showing significant advantage over the CG on movement velocity during the Bulgarian split squat at loads 20% 1RM, 40% 1RM, and 60% 1RM (p = 0.008, 0.011, 0.008,

η_{p}^{2}

= 0.337, 0.313, 0.324). General lower limb power in the EG also improved significantly, with CMJ height, EUR, and RSI showing significant inter-group superiority compared to the CG (p < 0.001, = 0.019, 0.004,

η_{p}^{2}

= 0.659, 0.281, 0.399). Regarding bowling performance, the EG demonstrated highly significant advantages in front foot contact impulse, front knee angle at ball release, and ball release speed (p < 0.001,

η_{p}^{2}

= 0.572, 0.590, 0.704). In conclusion, the 8-week VBT-FCT program is more effective than the traditional resistance and plyometric training program of the same duration in enhancing lower limb power and bowling performance for medium-fast cricket bowlers. Full article

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11 pages, 886 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shifting Attention and Response Time Performance in Adolescents: Effects of External and Internal Focus

by Fábio Flôres, Priscila Cardozo, Denise Soares and Ricardo Drews

Sports 2026, 14(6), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060225 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Aim: To examine the effects of attentional focus on adolescents’ response time performance and investigate whether sports participation moderates this effect. Methods: Fifty-eight adolescents (16.46 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: external focus of attention (EF), internal focus of attention [...] Read more.

Aim: To examine the effects of attentional focus on adolescents’ response time performance and investigate whether sports participation moderates this effect. Methods: Fifty-eight adolescents (16.46 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: external focus of attention (EF), internal focus of attention (IF), or control. Participants performed a response-time task using a visual stimulus. A 3 × 2 factorial ANOVA was conducted, with attentional focus group (external, internal, control) and sports participation (yes, no) as between-subjects factors. Results: A significant main effect of attentional focus was found, with the EF group outperforming the IF and control groups. Sports participation alone was not a significant factor, and the interaction between attentional focus and sports participation was not statistically significant. However, exploratory analyses suggested a possible tendency for adolescents engaged in sports practice to respond more favorably to an EF strategy, though these findings should be interpreted with caution. No significant differences were observed among non-sports participants. Conclusion: These findings reinforce the benefits of an external attentional focus for adolescent response-time performance. Although exploratory, the results suggest that adolescents engaged in sports practice may respond more favorably to EF, highlighting the potential relevance of reconsidering commonly used IF instructions in youth sports and educational contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Athlete Assessment and Performance Training)

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16 pages, 774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Health Behaviours in Soccer Support Staff: 24-Hour Movement Adherence

by Olivia C. Coope, Tilly J. Spurr, Alex L. Levington, Tom Davies, Beth Lloyd, Enrique Jordán and Blanca Roman-Viñas

Sports 2026, 14(6), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060224 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Soccer support staff operate under demanding schedules and high-performance environments while guiding players’ movement, sleep, and nutrition; however, their own lifestyle behaviours remain under-researched. This exploratory study assessed adherence to the Canadian 24-Hour Movement (24HM) guidelines and its association with diet quality (DQ) [...] Read more.

Soccer support staff operate under demanding schedules and high-performance environments while guiding players’ movement, sleep, and nutrition; however, their own lifestyle behaviours remain under-researched. This exploratory study assessed adherence to the Canadian 24-Hour Movement (24HM) guidelines and its association with diet quality (DQ) in professional and semi-professional soccer support staff. Methods: A cross-sectional survey collected data from 236 staff in the United Kingdom and Spain. Movement behaviours were measured using the Whole Day Matters Toolkit and DQ using the validated Mini-EAT questionnaire. A graded 24HM score (0–8) summed binary adherence across four general (MVPA, LPA, sedentary time, sleep) and four secondary (muscle-strengthening, sedentary interruptions, screen time, sleep–wake time) behaviours. Associations with DQ were estimated using adjusted multiple linear regression. Results: Only 7.6% of participants met all eight guidelines. Each one-point increase in the graded score was associated with 0.89-point higher DQ (95% CI 0.29–1.49, p = 0.004), with stronger associations observed for secondary behaviours (β = 1.27, p = 0.006) than for general behaviours (β = 0.38, p = 0.50). Conclusions: A graded 24HM scoring approach showed a graded association with DQ in soccer staff, with secondary movement behaviours showing a stronger association. All findings should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT06771752. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Health and Performance in Football)

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16 pages, 7723 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multilevel Analysis of Body Composition in Elite and Sub-Elite Female Volleyball Players: Structural and Potentially Modifiable Characteristics

by Matteo Pincella, Fabrizio Spataro, Anjumol Cancian, Alberto Cecchinato, Emanuela Longa, Federica Sprenger, Giuseppe Annunziata, Giuseppe Cerullo and Francesco Campa

Sports 2026, 14(6), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060223 - 29 May 2026

Abstract

Body composition is a key factor in volleyball performance, but research on female athletes has largely focused on only a few general traits. This study compared elite and sub-elite female volleyball players using a multilevel body composition framework to compare structural and potentially [...] Read more.

Body composition is a key factor in volleyball performance, but research on female athletes has largely focused on only a few general traits. This study compared elite and sub-elite female volleyball players using a multilevel body composition framework to compare structural and potentially modifiable characteristics across competitive levels. Forty female volleyball players were assessed and classified as elite (n = 15) or sub-elite (n = 25). Body composition was assessed using anthropometry and ultrasound. Elite players were taller (183.1 ± 8.2 vs. 170.7 ± 8.8 cm), heavier (76.0 ± 8.5 vs. 65.8 ± 9.1 kg), and displayed distinct body proportions compared with sub-elite players. The elite group also showed higher skeletal muscle index (SMI: 8.1 ± 0.7 vs. 7.3 ± 0.7 kg·m⁻²) and lower fat mass percentage (22.3 ± 2.2 vs. 25.3 ± 4.4%). However, differences in adiposity were attenuated when normalized for stature using fat mass index (FMI: 5.1 ± 0.8 vs. 5.8 ± 1.5 kg·m⁻²). Ultrasound-derived data indicated greater regional muscularity in elite players, whereas no differences were observed in the sum of adipose tissue layers, consistent with anthropometric skinfolds. The muscle-to-bone ratio did not differ between groups, suggesting proportional development of muscle and bone mass. Elite female volleyball players were characterized by greater structural dimensions and muscularity, whereas FMI appeared more informative than FM% for assessing adiposity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determinants of Body Composition in Different Sports: From Assessment to Performance Optimization)

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18 pages, 598 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sport Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being in Collegiate Athletes: The Role of Upbringing, Athletic Status, and Adaptive Psychological Attributes

by Akorede A. Teriba, Radomir R. Mitic, Kathryn M. Ellingson, Amber M. Peterson, Aaron M. Cooper, Andrew C. Lenway, Cassidy M. Brown, Henry Rott and Jimmy J. Morin

Sports 2026, 14(6), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060222 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Athletes face a variety of pressures related to their sport participation, and these demands can contribute to persistent mental health challenges. The aim of this study was to examine the role of grit, growth mindset, emotion regulation, self-compassion, and psychological well-being in collegiate [...] Read more.

Athletes face a variety of pressures related to their sport participation, and these demands can contribute to persistent mental health challenges. The aim of this study was to examine the role of grit, growth mindset, emotion regulation, self-compassion, and psychological well-being in collegiate athletes’ sport satisfaction. Participants (N = 263) were recruited through CloudResearch and outreach emails to athletic programs. The sample included individuals from 43 U.S. states and represented rural, suburban, and urban communities. Among the 30 sports represented, basketball, football, and soccer had the highest participation. Results indicated significant differences in sport satisfaction (p = 0.007, η² = 0.04) and growth mindset (p = 0.017, η² = 0.03) across communities of upbringing, as well as differences in sport satisfaction across years in college (p = 0.008, η² = 0.06). Scholarship status was associated with significant differences in sport satisfaction (p < 0.001, d = 0.85) and expressive suppression (p = 0.019, d = 0.31). Cognitive reappraisal (r = 0.427) demonstrated the strongest association with psychological well-being, whereas growth mindset (r = 0.501) showed the strongest association with sport satisfaction. Additionally, a significant interaction effect emerged between growth mindset and psychological well-being (p = 0.033, ΔR² = 0.01) in predicting sport satisfaction. These findings highlight the importance of supporting student-athletes in effectively regulating their emotions and maintaining a belief in their capacity for growth, as both factors appear critical for promoting psychological well-being and enhancing satisfaction with the athletic experience. Full article

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7 pages, 495 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Maximum Sprints Elicit Higher Peak Knee Joint Power than Resistance Training Exercises

by Tobias Alt, Kenneth P. Clark, Jesper Augustsson and Jurdan Mendiguchia

Sports 2026, 14(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060221 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Sprinting places exceptionally large mechanical demands on the knee flexors, particularly during the late swing phase when the hamstrings are actively lengthened under load. Therefore, coaches and practitioners try to increase the hamstrings’ capacity to absorb energy by various resistance training exercises [...] Read more.

Background: Sprinting places exceptionally large mechanical demands on the knee flexors, particularly during the late swing phase when the hamstrings are actively lengthened under load. Therefore, coaches and practitioners try to increase the hamstrings’ capacity to absorb energy by various resistance training exercises with high (supramaximal) eccentric intensity. However, it is unclear whether the load parameters are equivalent to maximum sprints. Consequently, the aim of this short study was to compare peak knee power values derived from aggregated previously published datasets of maximum sprints and strenuous hamstring exercises, rather than from a single directly controlled experimental comparison. Methods: Previously published inverse dynamic analyses of sprints, explosive Razor Curls, decelerated Nordic Hamstring Exercise and eccentric isokinetic hamstring tests were aggregated and compared. Results: The combined data showed that both absolute and relative peak knee power were 8 to 14 times higher during sprinting at 10 m/s—primarily due to 6- to 14-fold higher knee extension angular velocities. Conclusions: Peak knee power during maximum sprints was not replicated by the analyzed hamstring exercise conditions, even if they were very explosive and strenuous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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13 pages, 681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Discriminative Validity of Field-Based Propulsion and Sprint Tests in Elite Wheelchair Court Athletes with Different Functional Profiles

by Jordi Sanchez-Grau, Roger Font, Víctor Toro-Román, Gerard Carmona and Adrián García-Fresneda

Sports 2026, 14(6), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060220 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

Purpose: Field-based tests are widely used to assess propulsion and sprint performance in wheelchair athletes; however, their ability to discriminate between functional performance profiles associated with different impairment characteristics remains insufficiently explored. This study evaluated the discriminative capacity of propulsion, sprint, and [...] Read more.

Purpose: Field-based tests are widely used to assess propulsion and sprint performance in wheelchair athletes; however, their ability to discriminate between functional performance profiles associated with different impairment characteristics remains insufficiently explored. This study evaluated the discriminative capacity of propulsion, sprint, and manoeuvrability tests in elite wheelchair court athletes. Methods: Nineteen male elite athletes (ten wheelchair basketball, nine wheelchair rugby) performed the initial maximum push-rim propulsion (IMPRP), a 12 m linear sprint (3, 5, and 12 m splits), and a wheelchair manoeuvrability test (3L3R). Test reliability was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results: Test reliability was high across all assessments (ICC ≥ 0.82). The higher functional performance profile group demonstrated substantially greater IMPRP mechanical outputs, including mean velocity (ES = 2.69), maximum velocity (ES = 3.29), mean power (ES = 1.75), and maximum power (ES = 2.09) (all p < 0.001). Sprint performance also showed large between-group differences at 5 m (ES = 1.53) and 12 m (ES = 1.68) (p < 0.001), whereas manoeuvrability differences were moderate (ES = 0.62; p = 0.043). Conclusions: IMPRP and short-distance sprint tests appeared sensitive to differences between ecologically distinct wheelchair court sport athletes characterised by different real-world functional performance profiles. These field-based assessments may be useful for performance monitoring and may complement ecologically distinct athlete groups in wheelchair court sports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport, Disability, and Well-Being: Research on Physical and Mental Health)

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14 pages, 409 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Doping Intentions to Life Aspirations: A Goal Systems Perspective of Performance Enhancement in Sport

by Despoina Ourda, Lida Skoufa, Andreas Loukovitis, Haralambos Tsorbatzoudis and Vassilis Barkoukis

Sports 2026, 14(6), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060219 - 26 May 2026

Abstract

Doping research has predominantly focused on proximal cognitive predictors of athletes’ intentions to use prohibited substances, often conceptualizing doping as a final behavioral outcome. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory and Goal Systems Theory, the present study examined the relationships between doping intentions, perceived means [...] Read more.

Doping research has predominantly focused on proximal cognitive predictors of athletes’ intentions to use prohibited substances, often conceptualizing doping as a final behavioral outcome. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory and Goal Systems Theory, the present study examined the relationships between doping intentions, perceived means of performance enhancement, and internal and external life aspirations among competitive athletes. A total of 204 athletes (Mage = 22.99 years) completed measures assessing doping intentions, perceived effectiveness of different performance enhancement means, and aspiration components. The results indicated that stronger doping intentions were negatively associated with internal aspiration components and positively associated with external aspiration components. Doping intentions were also positively related to perceived effectiveness of nutritional supplements, doping, and combined enhancement practices, while being negatively associated with reliance on training and nutrition alone. Several indirect effects were observed, demonstrating that perceived performance enhancement partially mediated the relationships between doping intentions and aspiration components. These findings suggest that performance enhancement behaviors are cognitively embedded within athletes’ motivational goal systems and play an active role in shaping aspiration-related evaluations. Overall, this study advances doping research by conceptualizing doping behavior as part of a broader, goal-directed, motivational structure rather than an isolated outcome. Full article

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13 pages, 990 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Effects of Different Warm-Ups on Volleyball Performance

by Milosz Mielniczek and Roland van den Tillaar

Sports 2026, 14(6), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060218 - 26 May 2026

Abstract

Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on volleyball-specific physical performance. Background: Warm-ups in volleyball aim to enhance performance and reduce injury risk, but no standardized approach exists and evidence on effectiveness is inconsistent. Methods: A systematic search [...] Read more.

Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on volleyball-specific physical performance. Background: Warm-ups in volleyball aim to enhance performance and reduce injury risk, but no standardized approach exists and evidence on effectiveness is inconsistent. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted through 12 November 2025. Two reviewers independently screened records and assessed risk of bias. A systematic search identified 108 records; 13 met inclusion criteria. Eligible studies examined the effects of different warm-up methods on volleyball-related physical performance. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool and visualized with the robvis package. Warm-up protocols were categorized into dynamic and static stretching, resisted warm-ups, foam rolling and vibration techniques, whole-body vibration, Raise Activate Mobilize Potentiate (RAMP), joint distraction methods, and volleyball-specific routines. Results: Dynamic, resisted, high-intensity, volleyball-specific, and whole-body vibration warm-ups showed the most consistent improvements in jump performance, agility, and reaction time. Static stretching provided minimal benefits, with occasional gains in agility or flexibility. Foam rolling and vibration foam rolling were largely ineffective, except for one study showing improved reactive strength. The results varied due to differences in athlete level, protocol duration/intensity, sample size, and measurement methods. Conclusion: Warm-ups appear to meaningfully influence volleyball performance. Dynamic, resisted, and sport-specific routines appear to be the most effective. More research is needed to define optimal, standardized protocols. Full article

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17 pages, 606 KB

Open AccessArticle

Indirect Role of Sprint Performance in the Relationship Between Explosive Power and Change-of-Direction Ability in Adolescent Athletes: A Structural Equation Modeling Study

by Ying-Fang Liu, Huan-Chieh Chen and Tso-Yen Mao

Sports 2026, 14(6), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060217 - 26 May 2026

Abstract

Background: This study examines the hierarchical determinants of change-of-direction (COD) ability in adolescent athletes to assess whether sprint performance functions as a potential intermediate variable of the relationship between explosive power and COD performance. Methods: The study recruited 86 high school athlete participants. [...] Read more.

Background: This study examines the hierarchical determinants of change-of-direction (COD) ability in adolescent athletes to assess whether sprint performance functions as a potential intermediate variable of the relationship between explosive power and COD performance. Methods: The study recruited 86 high school athlete participants. Explosive power was assessed using the countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ). Sprint performance was evaluated using 10 m and 20 m sprint tests. COD performance was assessed using the 505 pre-planned COD test. Body composition was also recorded. Results: Correlation analyses indicates that 20 m sprint time was positively associated with COD performance (r = 0.67–0.82), whereas CMJ performance was significantly and negatively associated with COD performance (r = −0.65 to −0.68). Multiple regression analysis explained 63.6% of the variance in COD performance; sprint performance emerged as the strongest predictor. Indirect effect analysis showed that the effect of explosive power on COD performance is consistent with an indirect pathway by sprint performance. Structural equation modeling supported a hierarchical model: Explosive power was associated with sprint performance, which in turn was associated with COD ability. Conclusions: The findings suggest that improvements in COD performance among adolescent athletes may depend on enhancing explosive power while optimizing acceleration and speed-transfer capacity. These findings provide practical implications for athlete selection and training program design in youth sports. Full article

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9 pages, 579 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Competition Anxiety and Mood State in White-Belt Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Athletes: An Exploratory Comparison Between Medalists and Non-Medalists

by Marcelo Victor Menezes Santana, Felipe J. Aidar, Renato Méndez-DelCanto, Marcio Getirana-Mota, Alfonso López Díaz de Durana, Rapahel Fabricio de Souza, Ciro José Brito, Teresa Figueiredo and Luis Leitão

Sports 2026, 14(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060216 - 26 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Combat sports performance is highly determined by psychological factors, and differences in pre-competitive anxiety and mood states can exist between medalist and non-medalists athletes; Methods: The present study aims to assess pre-competitive anxiety and mood state differences between medalist and non-medalists Brazilian [...] Read more.

Background: Combat sports performance is highly determined by psychological factors, and differences in pre-competitive anxiety and mood states can exist between medalist and non-medalists athletes; Methods: The present study aims to assess pre-competitive anxiety and mood state differences between medalist and non-medalists Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) athletes graded as white-belts. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2 (CSAI-2) and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) questionnaires were applied to 26 BJJ white-belt athletes before a fight in a national-level competition.; Results: Medalists presented less cognitive anxiety (22.36 ± 3.82 vs. 25.21 ± 3.17; p < 0.05) and higher mental confusion (9.86 ± 3.01 vs. 7.43 ± 3.01; p < 0.05) than non-medalist athletes. No significant differences were found in any other variable; Conclusions: The relationship between pre-competitive anxiety and sport performance is clear; however, higher mental confusion in medalists is a confounding result. More research is needed on this topic to elucidate the psychological phenomena of higher mental confusion in less-experienced athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychological Dimensions of Success and Failure in Sport)

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14 pages, 2079 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Patterns of Statin Therapy and Multicomponent Exercise Training on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Older Adults with Dyslipidemia: A 24-Month Cohort Study

by Liliana C. Baptista, Aristides M. Machado-Rodrigues, Marco Antônio Rabelo Da Silva, Elias De França and Raul A. Martins

Sports 2026, 14(6), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14060215 - 22 May 2026

Abstract

Statins’ effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and their interaction with exercise training remain unclear in older adults with dyslipidemia. This cohort study enrolled nine hundred and eighty-one older adults with dyslipidemia who underwent one of three interventions: (i) multicomponent exercise training (MEX; n [...] Read more.

Statins’ effects on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and their interaction with exercise training remain unclear in older adults with dyslipidemia. This cohort study enrolled nine hundred and eighty-one older adults with dyslipidemia who underwent one of three interventions: (i) multicomponent exercise training (MEX; n = 298; 74% females), (ii) daily statin monotherapy (ST; n = 178; 65% females), or (iii) combined treatment with statins and multicomponent exercise training (STMEX; n = 505; 79% females). CRF, functional status, and lipid profile were assessed at baseline and after 24 months. After follow-up, statin therapy reduced CRF by 4% in women (p < 0.001), but not in men. The statin groups also showed reduced upper- and lower-limb strength in both sexes. Exercise alone significantly improved CRF (women: 27% vs. men: 21%, p < 0.001) and functional status, regardless of sex. The combined treatment significantly increased women’s CRF, whereas men showed an attenuated CRF benefit (women: 27% vs. men: 1%, p < 0.001). Our findings suggest sex-specific patterns in the effects of statin therapy on CRF in older adults with dyslipidemia. Statin therapy was associated with lower CRF over time in women, but not in men, whereas multicomponent exercise training may reverse these effects. Full article

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18 pages, 459 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stability of Rowing Technique and Specificity of Training Load: A Pilot Longitudinal Study in Young Athletes

by Igor E. Anpilogov, Nicolas H. Kruchynsky and Eugene B. Postnikov

Sports 2026, 14(5), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050214 - 21 May 2026

Abstract

Tracking biomechanical changes associated with different training modalities remains a methodological challenge in applied sports science. This pilot longitudinal study examined stroke technique stability in seven junior rowers (aged 16.6 ± 0.5 years) across three measurement sessions (March, April, June), separated by two [...] Read more.

Tracking biomechanical changes associated with different training modalities remains a methodological challenge in applied sports science. This pilot longitudinal study examined stroke technique stability in seven junior rowers (aged 16.6 ± 0.5 years) across three measurement sessions (March, April, June), separated by two training mesocycles emphasising strength training and intensive rowing, respectively. Upper body angular velocity was recorded using a smartphone-based MEMS sensor fixed to the upper back during incremental ergometer exercise. Overall stroke duration and its standard deviation remained stable throughout the study period, whereas the durations of the two stroke phases corresponding to forward (drive) and backward (recovery) body motion changed systematically across mesocycles. Phase-specific changes were statistically significant in 10 of 12 paired comparisons (rank-sum test) and 7 of 12 within-subject comparisons (Wilcoxon signed-rank test) for phase durations, and in 9 and 5 of 12 comparisons for their standard deviations, respectively. These findings suggest that the internal structure of the rowing stroke is sensitive to training load specificity, even when overall stroke timing remains unchanged, and that smartphone-based angular velocity analysis provides a feasible tool for individualized biomechanical monitoring in young athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Athlete Assessment and Performance Training)

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34 pages, 5228 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Performance to Health: A Global Scientometric Analysis of the Evolution of CrossFit Research

by Gabriel de Souza Zanini, David Michel de Oliveira, Pedro Luiz Santorsula de Paula Oliveira, Eduarda Corteze Santos, Renata da Silva Alves Bolzam, Víctor Hernández-Beltrán, José M. Gamonales, Mário Cunha Espada, Danilo Alexandre Massini and Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho

Sports 2026, 14(5), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050213 - 21 May 2026

Abstract

Scientific production on CrossFit^® has expanded alongside the growing popularity of the modality; however, multi-database scientometric analysis describing its structure, research trends, and knowledge gaps remains limited. Objective: This study conducted a scientometric analysis to identify patterns within the literature and to [...] Read more.

Scientific production on CrossFit^® has expanded alongside the growing popularity of the modality; however, multi-database scientometric analysis describing its structure, research trends, and knowledge gaps remains limited. Objective: This study conducted a scientometric analysis to identify patterns within the literature and to provide directions for future research. Methods: Searches were performed in the databases Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus, including all publications available up to December 2024. The search identified 3927 records. After removing duplicates and excluding reviews, meta-analyses, and studies outside the scope, 526 original articles were included in the analysis. Scientometric analyses were conducted using Bibliometrix (version 4.3.2) implemented in R (version 4.4.2), with additional support from Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer (v1.6.20). Results: The results indicate a marked growth in publication output, with an average annual increase of approximately 37.5%, reflecting the increasing academic interest in the modality. The United States and Brazil emerged as leading contributors, supported by strong research infrastructure and expanding scientific communities. The thematic structure of the field is predominantly centered on physiological responses, performance outcomes, and injury-related topics, while psychosocial, behavioral, and population-specific dimensions remain comparatively underexplored. Despite the observed expansion, the findings suggest that quantitative growth has outpaced methodological diversification and longitudinal development within the field. In addition, a limited integration between scientific findings and applied training contexts was identified, highlighting a gap between research production and real-world practice. Conclusion: Overall, CrossFit^® research appears to be expanding toward a more diversified and structured scientific field; however, advancing the field will require greater methodological rigor, increased focus on longitudinal and integrative approaches, and stronger translation of scientific evidence into applied settings. Full article

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20 pages, 1010 KB

Open AccessReview

Exercise-Induced Myokines in Obesity-Related Metabolic Disorders and Cardiovascular Protection: A Narrative Review

by Yuxuan Zhang and Yajun Qiu

Sports 2026, 14(5), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050212 - 21 May 2026

Abstract

Obesity is a significant risk factor for metabolic diseases and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Exercise exerts beneficial effects partly through myokines secreted by skeletal muscle. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on exercise-induced myokines in obesity. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar [...] Read more.

Obesity is a significant risk factor for metabolic diseases and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Exercise exerts beneficial effects partly through myokines secreted by skeletal muscle. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on exercise-induced myokines in obesity. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar up to Jan 2026 using keywords “myokines”, “obesity”, “resistance training”, “aerobic exercise”, and “HIIT”. We focused on six myokines (IL-6, irisin, FGF21, myostatin, apelin, and Metrnl) that are consistently linked to metabolic and cardiovascular health. Key findings are as follows: resistance training effectively increases irisin and decreases myostatin, promoting muscle mass and fat browning; high-intensity interval training (HIIT) induces rapid IL-6 peaks and elevates Metrnl, enhancing anti-inflammatory responses and cardiac function; aerobic exercise improves FGF21 sensitivity and supports long-term metabolic homeostasis. For clinicians and exercise practitioners, a preliminary exercise framework can be suggested based on available human evidence. In obese patients, ≥3 sessions per week of resistance training (60–80% of one-repetition maximum, 8–12 repetitions, 3–4 sets) may be considered to optimize irisin/myostatin balance, combined with ≥150 min per week of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (50–70% of maximum heart rate) or 75 min per week of HIIT (85–95% of peak heart rate, 4 × 4 min intervals) to improve FGF21 sensitivity and Metrnl levels. These suggestions should be interpreted as hypothesis-generating rather than definitive clinical guidance, given the heterogeneity of included studies and the absence of quantitative synthesis. Nevertheless, they offer a molecular basis for hypothesis-driven precision exercise prescription that requires validation in future prospective studies and randomized controlled trials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomechanics, Rehabilitation, and Metabolic Health: The Role of Physical Activity in Managing Chronic Conditions)

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19 pages, 1373 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Pass Rates of Return to Sport Test Batteries Following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Dominic Richmond, Caroline White and Thomas Gomulko

Sports 2026, 14(5), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050211 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

The association between return-to-sport test batteries (RTS-TBs) and clinical outcomes remains unclear. Previous systematic reviews of RTS-TBs have reported low pass rates; however, these reviews have been limited by substantial heterogeneity. This systematic review aimed to quantify RTS-TB pass rates and examine their [...] Read more.

The association between return-to-sport test batteries (RTS-TBs) and clinical outcomes remains unclear. Previous systematic reviews of RTS-TBs have reported low pass rates; however, these reviews have been limited by substantial heterogeneity. This systematic review aimed to quantify RTS-TB pass rates and examine their association with timing (post-op). Five electronic databases (AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, PubMed) were searched on 22 December 2024. Observational studies reporting RTS-TB outcomes as a single pass or fail were included. A random-effects proportion meta-analysis was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of pass rates. A meta-regression was performed to assess the association between test timing and pass rate. Twelve studies (n = 1977) met the eligibility criteria, but five were excluded from the meta-analysis and meta-regression due to overlapping cohorts. From the remaining eight studies (n = 1449), the pooled prevalence of pass rates was 33% overall (95% CI 19 to 47%), 26% (95% CI 18 to 33%) for non-professional athletes, and 73% (95% CI 66 to 80%) for professional athletes, although only a single study focused on professional athletes. No association was observed between the post-operative timing of the test and passing RTS-TB (p = 0.73). The observed RTS-TB pass rates are low, and this may be influenced by the extreme heterogeneity. Although no association was observed between the RTS-TB timing and pass rates, this finding alone cannot confirm causality. Full article

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12 pages, 705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Collision Volume and Contact Exposure Profile in Elite Women’s Rugby Union: Differences Compared with Men

by Diego Hernán Villarejo-García, Carlos Navarro-Martínez and José Pino-Ortega

Sports 2026, 14(5), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050210 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

Elite women’s rugby has often been analysed using the male performance model as a reference, despite evidence that women’s rugby presents distinct game demands and potentially different risk profiles. This study aimed to compare the frequency of key contact-related events between elite men’s [...] Read more.

Elite women’s rugby has often been analysed using the male performance model as a reference, despite evidence that women’s rugby presents distinct game demands and potentially different risk profiles. This study aimed to compare the frequency of key contact-related events between elite men’s and women’s rugby. An observational, retrospective, comparative cohort study was conducted using official performance data from 135 international matches from the men’s and women’s Six Nations Championships. Variables were grouped into three categories: Open-Play, Static Phases, and Discipline. Independent samples t-tests, Mann–Whitney U tests, and Linear Discriminant Analysis were used to identify sex-based differences. The results showed that men presented a higher frequency of rucks lasting more than 6 s (p < 0.001), whereas no significant differences were found in total tackles (p = 0.378) or total rucks (p = 0.634). In Static Phases, women’s teams recorded significantly more scrums (p < 0.001). In Discipline, women conceded fewer free kicks (p = 0.003) but received more red cards (p = 0.020). In conclusion, elite women’s rugby shares some open-play characteristics with the men’s game but differs in scrum frequency and disciplinary profile, supporting the existence of a distinct contact and risk exposure profile that should be considered when designing training and prevention strategies. Full article

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13 pages, 1593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Steroid Hormones and Psychological Outcomes in Healthy Male Adolescents: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Nejmeddine Ouerghi, Wissal Abassi, Nidhal Jebabli, Mohamed Bessem Hammami, Anissa Bouassida, Katja Weiss, Thomas Rosemann, Moncef Feki and Beat Knechtle

Sports 2026, 14(5), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050209 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

The study investigated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness, hormonal, and psychological markers in adolescents. Twenty-eight healthy male adolescents were randomized to a HIIT group or a non-training control group. HIIT comprises three sessions per week for 10 weeks, [...] Read more.

The study investigated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness, hormonal, and psychological markers in adolescents. Twenty-eight healthy male adolescents were randomized to a HIIT group or a non-training control group. HIIT comprises three sessions per week for 10 weeks, alternating 30 s runs at high-intensity and low-intensity. VO_2max was estimated using the incremental running test. Plasma testosterone and cortisol were assessed by ELISA methods. Depression, anxiety, and stress scores were determined using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Significant “group × time” interactions were detected for VO_2max, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, and stress score, but not for anxiety and depression scores. HIIT resulted in increased VO_2max (p < 0.001, d = 1.04), testosterone (p = 0.005, d = 0.52), and testosterone-to-cortisol ratio (p = 0.008, d = 1.05), and decreased cortisol (p = 0.036, d = 1.09) and stress score (p = 0.020, d = 0.98). Ten-week HIIT resulted in an improvement in physical fitness, steroid hormonal balance, and self-reported stress symptoms, but no changes in depressive and anxiety symptoms in comparison to the control group. The findings should be interpreted with caution due to limitations, including the small sample size and the lack of assessment of sex-related differences. Further research is required to elucidate the topic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Hematological and Biochemical Markers in Exercise Programs: From Health Optimization to Performance Enhancement)

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