1. Introduction
Sports expertise refers to the ability to consistently exhibit exceptional sporting performance and consistently superior athletic performance over time [
1,
2,
3,
4]. Researchers from a variety of disciplines, including neuroscience, cognitive psychology, sport psychology, and motor skill learning, have established an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the study of ‘expertise’. Exceptional expertise can be comprehended by analyzing the cognitive and neural processes that are developed through deliberate practice [
4].
To attain expert status, athletes are required to demonstrate excellence in four domains: physiological, technical, cognitive, and emotional [
3]. Although it is evident that performance excellence exists, further investigation is necessary to understand the perceptual-cognitive mechanisms that contribute to expertise. Perceptual-cognitive skills involve the capacity to identify and process information, integrate it into existing knowledge, and select and execute appropriate responses [
5]. For athletes to perform at their best, it is crucial to accurately perceive orientation and timing. However, both important and unimportant task details can often be overlooked owing to the abundance of visual stimuli. Athletes need to identify the most informative areas, direct their attention effectively, and quickly gather information [
6].
In recent years, researchers have attempted to identify the psychological factors of excellence in sports [
3]. Research suggests that elite athletes possess procedural and declarative knowledge that enables them to identify crucial information and predict events [
7,
8,
9,
10]. Furthermore, they exhibit proficiency in decision-making and the prediction of potential outcomes [
2,
11]. In addition, sports expertise displays higher perceptual-cognitive skills, including efficient attention allocation and cue utilization, as demonstrated in sports, highlighting the importance of acquiring perceptual skills to develop athletic expertise [
12,
13]. Consequently, researchers have concentrated on elucidating the processes through which athletes acquire perceptual cues [
11] and understanding their superior capacity to process task-specific information [
14].
Sports events require athletes to concentrate on the most relevant cues in order to achieve optimal performance and strategy. Consequently, differences between sports experts and non-sports experts were evident in sport-specific attention allocation and information acquisition measures. Further research on various sports, performance levels, and theoretical models is required to evaluate the benefits of performance and fluency for better perceptual-cognitive skill training recommendations [
15].
Research indicates that exercise positively impacts cognitive function [
16,
17], enhancing cognitive performance through better control of motor skills and basic cognition integration. Besides exercise, specific cognitive training, especially attention [
18] and working memory [
19], also boosts cognitive skills. Notably, elite athletes, particularly those in interactive and technical sports, benefit similarly from both exercise and cognitive training. High performance levels in perceptual-cognitive skills through video-based task simulations are feasible [
20].
Perceptual-cognitive skills in sports are typically examined through a high-performance orientation using sports-related stimuli. Studies often involve novice, sub-sports expertise athletes, and sports expertise athletes responding to visual stimuli from the sports context to recognize movement patterns or predict strike directions. Mann et al.’s [
21] meta-analysis revealed that elite athletes excelled in sport-related cognitive tasks that did not include non-sport-specific stimuli, indicating the limited transferability of these skills to other domains. However, evidence suggests that team sports athletes enhance their non-sport-specific cognitive skills. Voss et al.’s [
22] meta-analysis research found small to moderate effect sizes, showing that elite athletes performed better on cognitive measures than non-elite athletes, with the largest effect on message processing speed. They concluded that examining cognitive components to link sport-specific and general cognitive skills and differentiating cognitive skills into attentional cuing, processing speed, and varied attention yielded mixed results, but confirmed skill transfer from sports to general environments. Other studies have also demonstrated a positive correlation between cognitive and motor skills. In a cross-sectional study, high-skilled soccer players exhibited better executive functioning than lower-skilled players, who outperformed the normative group [
23]. The study concluded that perceptual-cognitive skills may enhance performance in interceptive sports as well [
24].
Athletes’ cognitive skills can be examined through two experimental psychological research methods: (i) the sports expertise performance approach and (ii) the component skill approach. The sports expertise performance approach evaluates athletes’ specific sports performance [
3,
21] and allows skill transfer from the field to the laboratory (proximity transfer). Research employing this methodology indicates that individuals with expertise, as opposed to those with non-sport expertise, exhibit a more comprehensive understanding of task-related information. Research using this methodology suggests that people with expertise, as opposed to those without, demonstrate a more comprehensive understanding of task-related information. They make better use of available data, encode and retrieve relevant information more efficiently, and detect and localize objects and patterns more quickly and accurately. They also make faster and more appropriate decisions using valid information [
25]. The component skill approach assesses the link between basic cognitive skills and motor expertise [
3,
26] and determines whether athletes differ from non-athletes in perceptual-cognitive processes.
The reciprocal relationship between working memory and attention in the domain of sports has been well documented [
27,
28]. Athletes appear to effectively utilize attentional resources to influence movement preparation and sustain optimal performance [
29]. Furley and Memmert [
30] demonstrated that the current content of working memory directs athletes’ attention, positing this as the core mechanism by which attention is allocated in the deliberate pursuit of goals. Consequently, athletes can self-regulate their attentional system, enabling the conscious execution of goal-oriented movements. Working memory capacity reflects an individual’s ability to control attention [
31,
32,
33].
Based on the above literature on cognitive ability, the present study used a component skill approach to assess differences in sports expertise using non-sport-specific cognitive measures. Further, we investigated not only interceptive but also open-skill sports. This study aimed to investigate the levels of perceptual-cognitive skills among elite athletes. We hypothesized that athletes with higher perceptual and cognitive skills would exhibit superior performance in their respective sports.
4. Discussion
In our study, we evaluated a variety of sports and assessed the perceptual-cognitive skills of elite college athletes at various stages, taking their gender into account. The following analysis centered on perceptual-cognitive skills, focusing specifically on visual-spatial reaction time and short-term memory in elite and semi-elite athletes. Furthermore, this analysis also examined the role of perceptual-cognitive skills in decision making, focusing on the ability to quickly process and analyze visual information and make split-second decisions in the field. Additionally, the analysis explored the relationship between perceptual-cognitive skills and performance in various sports, examining how these abilities can contribute to an athlete’s success in their respective sports.
4.1. Perceptual-Cognitive Skill Effects at the Elite Level
The athletes’ elite levels were determined by Swan [
35], who defined elite athletes based on specific athlete characteristics. Based on the athletes’ responses to the elite athletes’ competition experiences and individual competition results, the elite athletes were categorized into semi-elite athletes and elite athletes above the competitive athletes using the calculation formula. After the calculation, there were approximately 41 semi-elite athletes and 86 competitive elite athletes.
The findings indicated no differences in elite athletes’ perceptual-cognitive skills regarding visual-spatial reaction time, but there was a significant disparity in the short-term working memory span, partially supporting the hypothesis.
4.2. Athletes’ Visual-Spatial Reaction Time
Visual-spatial reaction time is a fundamental requirement for athletes, particularly elite and semi-elite athletes. The absence of significant discrepancies in the visual reaction time tests between the two groups could be attributed to the crucial visual-cognitive skills of athletes in both groups. Given the extensive experience of the recruited college athletes, their reaction times aligned with those of elite performers [
38]. Moreover, visual reaction time might be an acquired skill for athletes over many years of practice in a wide range of sports, including both closed- and open-skill sports [
42]. It was also observed that experienced athletes had better perceived time than novice athletes in this study and other studies [
43]. Research on visual reaction time in open-skill sports versus closed-skill sports also showed no differences between the two [
42]. Additionally, one study found no significant elite-level effects on visual-spatial reaction time in adolescent badminton players [
38].
4.3. Athletes’ Working Memory Performance
In this study, we examined the working memory in regulating attention and found that elite athletes outperformed semi-elite athletes in working memory performance. According to previous research, improved working memory and specialized movement skills may play a significant role in enhancing sports performance and achieving success in athletes. Recent cognitive research has highlighted the significant role of working memory in information storage, cognitive control, and attentional mechanisms [
44,
45,
46,
47]. Defined as the capacity to temporarily retain and utilize small amounts of information during tasks [
45,
46,
47], working memory is crucial for smooth action execution [
47,
48]. Enhancing working memory capacity (WMC) improves adaptability to situational changes, tactical decision-making [
49], focus, and efficient attention allocation [
50]. As noted by Kok [
35], attention and working memory interact and complement each other [
51]. Elite athletes can adapt their cognitive processing modes based on the complexity of competitive situations, alternating between different cognitive processing methods rather than relying solely on unconscious autonomy [
52].
These results align with those of previous studies; in the study by Williams and Ford [
6], individuals with high working memory capacity were better able to adapt their tactical decisions to the situation and focus their attention on the decision-making task while ignoring extraneous auditory interference results [
10,
49]. According to Engle [
53], a greater WMC is often associated with an increased ability to control attention. This is because WMC refers to a person’s ability in short-term memory and attentional control, i.e., the ability to hold and process multiple messages at the same time. A larger WMC enables athletes to retain and process more information concurrently, which is crucial for managing and regulating their attention. This capacity allows for more efficient resource allocation, rapid attention switching, and interference suppression, which are vital for maintaining focus during complex cognitive tasks and for effectively performing multiple tasks.
The scope of this study was confined to the amateur sports activities of college student-athletes. Although Swan et al. raised questions regarding the level of elite athletes, it is important not to extrapolate these findings to professional athletes. Moreover, due to the cross-sectional design of the study and the characteristics of the sample region and size, it is not possible to draw causal inferences regarding the development of perceptual-cognitive skills. To address this limitation, future research should incorporate longitudinal data collection methods. This approach would allow researchers to track changes in variables over time, potentially revealing causal relationships and providing a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. The cognitive tasks assessed included attention and working memory; however, the flexibility of cognitive function was not examined.
5. Conclusions
Perceptual-cognitive skills involve the ability to detect and process information, which is key to successful sporting performance. Sports experts demonstrate higher perceptual-cognitive skills, including efficient allocation of attention and use of cues, demonstrating the importance of acquiring perceptual skills in the development of sports expertise.
The study revealed that competitive elite college athletes demonstrated higher working memory and perceptual-cognitive skills compared to semi-elite athletes, which are crucial for sports performance; in other words, elite athletes are better able to adapt their cognitive processing modes to the complexity of competitive situations. They can switch between different cognitive processing methods rather than relying solely on unconscious autonomy. However, no differences were observed between the groups concerning reaction time conditions, as visual-spatial reaction time is a fundamental requirement for athletes, developed through many years of practice in a variety of sports.
The findings presented herein underscore the importance of higher-order perceptual and cognitive skills in differentiating between performance levels among athletes. To enhance performance levels in sports, it is recommended that coaches incorporate practice that focuses upon enhancing executive function and cognitive abilities. Future research should investigate more dynamic tasks to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the impact of elite athletic participation on perceptual-cognitive skills.