Sports

18 pages, 1426 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Supporting the IOC Consensus Statement on Mental Health in Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Prevalence of Mental Health Symptoms in Elite Sports

by Vincent Gouttebarge, Sharaisha C. Bilgoe, Paul Gorczynski, Mary E. Hitchcock, Margot Putukian, Claudia L. Reardon and Gino Kerkhoffs

Sports 2026, 14(7), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070296 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

We explored the epidemiological evidence on the prevalence of mental health symptoms among current and former elite athletes as well as among their entourage members. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, SportDiscus and Scopus to retrieve original quantitative [...] Read more.

We explored the epidemiological evidence on the prevalence of mental health symptoms among current and former elite athletes as well as among their entourage members. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, SportDiscus and Scopus to retrieve original quantitative studies that (i) were written in English, (ii) were conducted exclusively among current or former elite athletes and/or their entourage members, and (iii) presented prevalence rates of mental health symptoms. Results: In total, 72 studies were included, focusing on self-reported mental health symptoms (not on clinically diagnosed mental health disorders). Meta-analyses comprising 2596 to 10,927 current elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms ranged from 4% for drug misuse to 33% for distress. Meta-analyses comprising 2070 to 3405 former elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms ranged from 12% for depression to 28% for alcohol misuse. Because of the considerable heterogeneity among the included studies, the pooled prevalence estimates from these meta-analyses should be interpreted cautiously, as they summarize highly heterogeneous populations. Mental health symptoms were found to also be common among entourage members, with prevalence rates ranging from 5% for depression or anxiety to 53% for alcohol misuse in high-performance staff (including coaches) and reaching up to 36–58% for burnout in healthcare professionals working during the Paralympic games. Conclusions: Showing considerable heterogeneity across included studies, our systematic review and meta-analysis established that mental health symptoms are commonly reported by current and former elite athletes, as well as by their high-performance staff (including coaches) and medical staff. This warrants the implementation of various tailored resources, such as mental health literacy, screening programs and the availability of interdisciplinary medical and psychological support. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychology of Sport Performance: Contemporary Research and Application)

16 pages, 339 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Physical Activity and Mental Health in Primary School Children

by Raúl Lendínez-Conejo, Agustín Aibar-Almazán and María del Carmen Carcelén-Fraile

Sports 2026, 14(7), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070295 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

Mental health during childhood is a major public health concern, and physical activity has been proposed as a modifiable behaviour associated with psychological well-being and emotional health. This study examined the associations between physical activity and mental health indicators, including psychological well-being, anxiety [...] Read more.

Mental health during childhood is a major public health concern, and physical activity has been proposed as a modifiable behaviour associated with psychological well-being and emotional health. This study examined the associations between physical activity and mental health indicators, including psychological well-being, anxiety symptoms, and everyday stress, in primary school children. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 207 children from two schools in Jaén (Spain). Physical activity, psychological well-being, anxiety, and stress were assessed using validated questionnaires. Pearson correlations and multiple linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, and socioeconomic status were performed. Physical activity was positively associated with all dimensions of psychological well-being and with total psychological well-being (r = 0.182, p = 0.009). Significant inverse correlations were observed between physical activity and all anxiety dimensions, as well as total anxiety (r = −0.145, p = 0.037), although the association with total anxiety was not significant after adjustment (β = −0.149, p = 0.112). Physical activity was also negatively associated with all stress dimensions and remained significantly associated with lower total stress after adjustment (β = −0.253, p = 0.007). These findings indicate that higher levels of physical activity are associated with greater psychological well-being and lower everyday stress in primary school children. However, given the cross-sectional design, these associations should not be interpreted as causal relationships. Longitudinal studies are needed to clarify the directionality of these associations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport, Physical Activity and Adolescent Health: Challenges and Opportunities (2nd Edition))

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13 pages, 12321 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Unified Ranking Model for Evaluating Snatch and Clean and Jerk Performances Across Body Mass and Sex

by Marianne Huebner and Rayleigh Lei

Sports 2026, 14(7), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070294 - 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

In Olympic-style weightlifting males outperform females and heavier weightlifters lift more weight than athletes with lighter body mass. Traditional ranking models in weightlifting are based on total weight lifted and do not permit direct comparison of individual lift performances across body mass and [...] Read more.

In Olympic-style weightlifting males outperform females and heavier weightlifters lift more weight than athletes with lighter body mass. Traditional ranking models in weightlifting are based on total weight lifted and do not permit direct comparison of individual lift performances across body mass and sex. The aim of this study was to model performance in the snatch and clean and jerk and to develop a unified ranking system for comparisons across body mass and sex. Data from 3412 performances at IWF Senior World Championships and Olympics (2019–2025) were analyzed. The median sex gap was 30.7% for the snatch and 29.3% for the clean and jerk, with smaller differences at lower body mass. Peak performance occurred at 25.4 years for both lifts. Generalized additive models accounting for location, scale, and shape of the performance distribution were used to estimate standardized scores. Scaling individual lifts onto a common metric allows for meaningful evaluation of athletes even in the presence of unsuccessful attempts in one type of lift and can illustrate performance profiles. This approach supports performance assessment, athlete monitoring, and mixed-team rankings which is particularly relevant in emerging competition formats that emphasize lift-specific contributions and mixed-sex participation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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18 pages, 658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Pre-Quarantine Exercise and Persistent Symptoms After SARS-CoV-2 Infection

by Nikola Schmidt, Kira Engl, Barbara Grüne, Annelene Kossow, Johannes Nießen, Stefanie Wessely, Luis Haberstock, Susanne Rost and Christine Joisten

Sports 2026, 14(7), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070293 - 9 Jul 2026

Abstract

Background: Long-term symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection such as fatigue, shortness of breath and cognitive impairment represent a major burden on society. Risk factors include female sex, smoking, comorbidities and socioeconomic deprivation. Physical activity (PA) has been suggested as a potential protective factor, although [...] Read more.

Background: Long-term symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection such as fatigue, shortness of breath and cognitive impairment represent a major burden on society. Risk factors include female sex, smoking, comorbidities and socioeconomic deprivation. Physical activity (PA) has been suggested as a potential protective factor, although all population groups, including athletes, were affected. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the influence of PA duration and intensity on the odds of the presence of long-term symptoms. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 5413 individuals following acute COVID-19 within the CoCo-Fakt online monitoring study. The type, duration and intensity of exercise in the four weeks before quarantine were recorded, and the odds of the presence of long-term symptoms beyond 12 weeks after infection were determined, adjusted for demographics, health status and acute COVID-19 outcomes. Results: Among participants, 561 (10.4%) reported long-term symptoms. Those with long-term symptoms reported a longer duration (p = 0.019, d = −0.61) of exercise in the four weeks before quarantine compared to those without long-term symptoms. Adjusted for demographics, health status and acute COVID-19 outcomes, higher exercise intensity (MET/day) was associated with 16.7% increased odds of long-term symptoms (Nagelkerke R² = 18.0%). After the Bonferroni–Holm correction, this association did not remain significant. Conclusions: Current data suggests that PA has a protective effect on post-COVID-19 condition when performed at a moderate level. In our study, however, neither PA intensity nor duration emerged as a predictor of long-term symptoms. Future studies must clarify which intensities and types of exercise can help to maintain overall physical and mental health and to prevent or improve the long-term outcomes following SARS-CoV-2 infection, considering individual circumstances. Full article

17 pages, 3739 KB

Open AccessArticle

Athlete or Season? Gut Microbiota Variance in Elite Volleyball Players: A Compositional Performance-Based Reanalysis

by Junior Carlone, Giovanni Solarino, Saverio Giampaoli, Eugenio Alladio, Gioele Rosellini, Maurizio Cibba, Attilio Parisi, Alessio Fasano and Antonio Tessitore

Sports 2026, 14(7), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070292 - 9 Jul 2026

Abstract

Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data [...] Read more.

Background: The gut microbiota is an emerging factor in athletic performance. Methodological limitations persist in longitudinal microbiome studies, particularly regarding the compositional nature of microbiota data and the lack of standardized performance metrics in team sports. The present study applies a Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) framework with ANOVA-Simultaneous Component Analysis (ASCA) to investigate longitudinal gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes and introduces a novel Technical Performance Level (TPL) metric for objective performance quantification. Methods: Seven elite male volleyball athletes from the Italian SuperLega Championship were monitored across four sampling timepoints (T0, T1, T2, T3) during the Regular Season, Rest Period, and Tournament Period. Fecal samples underwent 16S rRNA metabarcoding. CLR-transformed data were analyzed at the Phylum, Family, and Genus level using ASCA with Season, Player, and their interaction. Statistical significance was assessed using the Freedman-Lane permutation test (10,000 iterations). Within-subject associations between TPL and CLR-transformed microbial features were assessed by repeated-measures correlation. Results: Season and Player effects were statistically significant at all taxonomic levels (p ≤ 0.0004), whereas the Season × Player interaction was significant at the Family and Genus levels (p ≤ 0.002) but not at the Phylum level (p = 0.108). The Player effect represented the largest source of variance at the Family (51.31%) and Genus (50.75%) levels. At the Phylum level, the Season × Player interaction accounted for the largest share of variance (36.23%), although it did not reach significance. Within-subject correlation analyses revealed no statistically significant association between microbial features and TPL at any taxonomic level, and none remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: The application of a compositional data analysis framework modifies the interpretation of gut microbiota dynamics in elite volleyball athletes compared to standard approaches. Individual athlete identity accounted for most of the compositional variance in the microbiota, whereas exploratory within-subject analyses did not reveal statistically significant associations between taxa and TPL. Given the small cohort, any observed trends should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating until confirmed in adequately powered cohorts. Longitudinal monitoring of gut microbiota could support individualized surveillance of gut health in elite sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Load, Athlete State, and Training Response in Sports)

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13 pages, 1187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Equipment to Performance: Investigating Skate Metrics and Their Relationship to Race Times in Competitive Long Track Speed Skaters

by Colin Dunne, Michael Holmes and Kelly Lockwood

Sports 2026, 14(7), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070291 - 9 Jul 2026

Abstract

The relationship between athletes and equipment in the sport of speed skating is critical. A speed skater’s equipment, namely their skates, is an integral part of a dynamic system that facilitates the translation of human motion to on-ice racing. Although it is common [...] Read more.

The relationship between athletes and equipment in the sport of speed skating is critical. A speed skater’s equipment, namely their skates, is an integral part of a dynamic system that facilitates the translation of human motion to on-ice racing. Although it is common practice to customize the setup of long track speed skates, empirical evidence supporting best practices is relatively undocumented. The exploratory nature of this investigation was intended to address two purposes: (i) profiling skate metrics in a competitive cohort of long track speed skaters and (ii) exploring the association between skate metrics and on-ice race times. Two databases were populated for the purpose of analysis: one for skate metrics and another for on-ice race times. Data were linked to the skates of thirty-one provincial-level long track speed skaters (male n = 19; female n = 12). The skate metrics database was populated by a single equipment technician, trained using measurement protocols consistent with the industry’s standards, and the metrics were grouped into three categories: (i) boot dimensions (n = 4), (ii) blade dimensions (n = 7), and (iii) skate setup (n = 5). The on-ice race time database was populated and collated using a secondary data source and included an aggregate time based on the mean of the three fastest race times per athlete by distance (500 m, 1000 m, and 1500 m) collected from the 2019–2023 seasons. Statistical analyses were conducted within and across the databases to (i) determine the variation in skate metrics and race times across athletes, and (ii) explore the association between skate metrics and race times. Analysis of the skate metrics database revealed coefficients of variance (CVs) for all metrics including the following: boot dimensions (6.95–8.69%), blade dimensions (0.00–14.24%), and skate setup metrics (8.63–17.05%). Of significant interest were large CVs for pivot point position (14.54%) and blade offset (8.63–17.05%), suggesting inconsistency and a potential lack of understanding of the impact of skate setup on performance. No significant correlations were revealed between skate setup metrics and race times. Across the three race distances, regression models were not statistically significant and explained only a small proportion of variance, highlighting the limited understanding between skate setup metrics and race times in practice. Profiling skate metrics and understanding their relationship with race times provides equipment technicians, coaches, and athletes with a baseline to inform decisions when customizing skate setup. Full article

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18 pages, 3738 KB

Open AccessArticle

On-Ice and Off-Ice Linear Sprint Performance Across Competitive Levels in Ice Hockey Players: Insights from Continuous Velocity Profiling

by Dominik Jablonka, Aaron Uthoff, Steven Eustace, Rhys Morris, Julian Enrik Smoliga and Dusana Augustovicova

Sports 2026, 14(7), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070290 - 8 Jul 2026

Abstract

Linear speed is a key performance determinant in ice hockey, yet no studies have compared continuous on-ice and off-ice velocity profiles across multiple competitive levels. This study examined continuous velocity curves and discrete sprint variables during 20 m on-ice (skating) and off-ice (running) [...] Read more.

Linear speed is a key performance determinant in ice hockey, yet no studies have compared continuous on-ice and off-ice velocity profiles across multiple competitive levels. This study examined continuous velocity curves and discrete sprint variables during 20 m on-ice (skating) and off-ice (running) sprints across three competitive levels. Sixty male ice hockey players (A-Team n = 20, U20A n = 20, U20B n = 20) completed maximal 20 m sprints in both conditions using a motorized resistance device. Bayesian analyses were used to evaluate continuous velocity profiles and discrete variables. Posterior estimates consistently favored greater off-ice velocity profiles than on-ice velocity profiles across all groups, particularly during the early portion of the sprint (P(diff) ~85%), although the practical meaningfulness of these differences remained uncertain. Discrete sprint variables showed stronger and more consistent practically meaningful differences (P(diff > SWC) = 66–99%). Between-group comparisons suggested a competitive hierarchy, with posterior estimates favoring greater velocity values in adults than lower competitive-level late adolescents (P(diff) ~87%). Practitioners should consider potential differences between on-ice and off-ice sprint performance and hierarchical trends across competitive levels when structuring training and assessment. Continuous velocity profiling may provide additional insight into velocity-development patterns, whereas discrete metrics may be more appropriate for routine team-level monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Athlete Assessment and Performance Training)

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15 pages, 284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Endocrine Status and Stress, Mood and Psychosomatic Status in Elite Handball Players

by Fanny Zselyke Ratz-Sulyok, Csilla Jang-Kapuy, Peter Bakonyi, Bettina Beres, Tamas Dobronyi, Gergo Simon, Annamaria Zsakai and Tamas Szabo

Sports 2026, 14(7), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070289 - 8 Jul 2026

Abstract

Purpose: The assessment of endocrine status in elite athletes is typically linked to training load and perceived stress; however, the relationship between hormonal parameters and psychosomatic and stress indicators remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between endocrine status and [...] Read more.

Purpose: The assessment of endocrine status in elite athletes is typically linked to training load and perceived stress; however, the relationship between hormonal parameters and psychosomatic and stress indicators remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between endocrine status and stress, mood, and psychosomatic status indicators in elite handball players. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, salivary cortisol (with no strict control over wake-up time), testosterone, and—in female athletes—17-β-estradiol concentrations were assessed in 584 elite handball players aged 14–35 years using ELISA. Psychological variables were evaluated using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the Health Behavior in School-aged Children Symptom Checklist (HBSC-SCL). Associations were examined using non-parametric tests and general linear models adjusted for age. Results: Hormonal and psychological variables demonstrated significant age-related trends. No significant associations were observed between hormonal parameters and perceived stress or mood disturbance (values for the general linear model (GLM) were all p > 0.05). In contrast, psychosomatic symptom severity was significantly associated with cortisol levels in male athletes (GLM, p < 0.001) and testosterone levels in female athletes (GLM, p = 0.009). Multivariate analyses confirmed the relevance of psychosomatic symptoms and indicated interaction effects between stress-related factors. Conclusion: Psychosomatic symptoms were more closely associated with endocrine status than with perceived stress or mood disturbance in elite handball players. However, these associations were characterized by relatively small effect sizes, indicating that psychosomatic symptoms explain only a limited proportion of the variance in hormonal parameters. These findings suggest that psychosomatic indicators may provide a more sensitive reflection of physiological strain and support the use of integrated monitoring approaches combining endocrine and psychosomatic measures in elite sport. In practical terms, routine monitoring of psychosomatic symptoms alongside hormonal measures may help practitioners to identify early signs of physiological strain and support timely adjustments in training load and recovery strategies. Full article

19 pages, 1965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Match-Related Fatigue in Youth Rugby Players Using a Readiness Index and Clinical Tests

by Pierosario Giuliano, Daniela Vitucci, Daniele Pacini, Stefania Orrù and Annamaria Mancini

Sports 2026, 14(7), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070288 - 8 Jul 2026

Abstract

Monitoring athlete readiness in youth rugby players is important for understanding short-term responses to match demands and supporting recovery management. Here, we aimed to investigate short-term readiness by integrating subjective measures, clinically relevant tests, and match load data. This single-team study considered 28 [...] Read more.

Monitoring athlete readiness in youth rugby players is important for understanding short-term responses to match demands and supporting recovery management. Here, we aimed to investigate short-term readiness by integrating subjective measures, clinically relevant tests, and match load data. This single-team study considered 28 male rugby players (17.8 ± 0.2 years), monitored every four consecutive days (match day [MD], MD+1, MD+2, MD+3). Readiness was assessed using four subjective dimensions (fatigue upon waking, mood, sleep quality, and muscle soreness), which were normalized to individual best values and combined into a composite readiness index (4-dRI; 0–1). The Adductor Squeeze Test (AST), Sit-and-Reach Test (SRT), and Global Positioning System-derived metrics (MD only) were also assessed. The 4-dRI decreased by approximately 30% at 24 h post-match (p < 0.001), indicating a substantial reduction in perceived readiness. Athletes exposed to higher GPS-derived match loads reported lower readiness on MD+1. AST showed moderate associations with the 4-dRI (ρ = 0.40, p < 0.05), whereas SRT appeared less responsive to short-term changes in readiness. These findings indicate that both the 4-dRI and AST were responsive to short-term changes in readiness across the competition period. Overall, these integrated data may contribute to athlete-monitoring strategies in team sport settings. Full article

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12 pages, 481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiorespiratory Aerobic Fitness and Repeated Sprint Ability in Elite Ice Hockey Players

by Jan Malecha, Libor Staněk, Vladimir Tuka, Martin Sedlář, Jiří Suchý, Agáta Jeníšová and Aleš Linhart

Sports 2026, 14(7), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070287 - 7 Jul 2026

Abstract

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO₂max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey [...] Read more.

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO₂max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey players. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between laboratory-measured VO_2max and RSA simulated on a supine ergometer and tested on ice. Elite male hockey players (n = 64) were tested in the laboratory (VO_2max and RSA). RSA testing was performed by a modified Wingate test (5 × 5 s sprints with 10 s recovery). In 28 athletes RSA was assessed during on-ice testing (five maximal skating sprints between the goal and the blue line). The decrease in performance was assessed by fatigue indices. In the laboratory setting, VO₂max correlated significantly with maximum workloads of the second, third, fourth and fifth bouts with increasing correlation strength (r = 0.26, p = 0.02; r = 0.48, p < 0.001; r = 0.57, p < 0.001; and r = 0.60, p < 0.001) and with fatigue indices—the percentage workload decrement index (r = 0.44, p < 0.001) and percentage maximum average workload decrement (%) (r = 0.38, p = 0.002). In addition, VO₂max correlated with lactate levels after 10 min of recovery (r = 0.31, p = 0.01). There was no correlation between VO₂max and on-ice testing results. Moreover, the results of RSA measured in the laboratory and on ice did not show any correlation. The lack of relationship between laboratory and on-ice testing further challenges the usefulness of bicycle ergometry laboratory testing in ice hockey. Full article

14 pages, 863 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a 10-Week Wushu Program on Static, Dynamic, and Dual-Task Balance and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children

by Beibei Luo, Yujie Xu, Yunya Zhang, Rongda Wang, Meifeng Gu, Jingjing Wang, Yanmei Shi, Zhibei Zhou, Rui Li and Xuting Zhu

Sports 2026, 14(7), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070286 - 7 Jul 2026

Abstract

Background: As a traditional Chinese exercise, Wushu has been shown to effectively promote balance and postural stability in various populations. Preschoolers’ capacity for balance control, including static, dynamic, and dual-task balance, is linked to the later development of stability skills in adulthood. However, [...] Read more.

Background: As a traditional Chinese exercise, Wushu has been shown to effectively promote balance and postural stability in various populations. Preschoolers’ capacity for balance control, including static, dynamic, and dual-task balance, is linked to the later development of stability skills in adulthood. However, studies of Wushu intervention focusing on balance ability and the related physical fitness in preschool children are limited. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of a 10-week Wushu program on static, dynamic dual-task balance and physical fitness in children 5–6 years old. Methods: Seventy-three participants were randomly divided into an intervention (INT, n = 39) and a control (CON, n = 34) group. The INT group participated in a 10-week Wushu program that included three 30 min sessions per week, while the CON group engaged in unstructured free play with purposely designed materials. The three key primary outcomes were dominant-leg stance for static balance, the balance beam walk for dynamic balance, and the center of pressure (CoP) path length obtained via a force platform during dual-task balance testing, in which the participants were instructed to count numbers backward. The five derived primary outcomes were non-dominant-leg stance, CoP ML path length, CoP AP path length, CoP sway velocity, and CoP sway area. Secondary outcomes were physical fitness indicators, including sit and reach, grip strength, standing long jump (SLJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 15 m zigzag run, double-leg continuous jump, height and body weight. The analysis of the outcomes was conducted using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and Pearson correlation. Results: At baseline, the CON and INT groups did not differ significantly. The INT demonstrated significant enhancements in comparison with CON in the dominant and non-dominant-leg stance (p = 0.017 and p = 0.005, respectively), the balance beam walk, SLJ, 15 m zigzag run and double-leg continuous jump (all p < 0.05), along with the mediolateral CoP path length (p = 0.012). A strong correlation was found between the balance beam walk and the double-leg continuous jump (r = 0.55, p = 0.001), and between the balance beam walk and the 15 m zigzag run (r = 0.43, p = 0.015). Conclusions: The present study demonstrates that a 10-week Wushu program significantly enhances preschool children’s static balance, dynamic balance, and mediolateral postural control during dual-task condition. The improvements in dynamic balance are correlated with lower-limb coordination and jumping agility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Exercise Interventions on Motor Competence and Health in Children)

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23 pages, 2062 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Dietary Supplements and Oxidative Stress Management in Young Adults Following Intensive Exercise: A Systematic Review

by Vlassios Kakouris, Maria Piagkou, George Triantafyllou and Karolina Akinosoglou

Sports 2026, 14(7), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070285 - 6 Jul 2026

Abstract

Strenuous exercise is a well-established physiological stimulus that enhances muscular strength and hypertrophy but can also increase reactive oxygen species production, leading to oxidative stress (OS). Numerous studies have investigated whether dietary supplements can attenuate exercise-induced OS, yet findings remain inconsistent, and methodological [...] Read more.

Strenuous exercise is a well-established physiological stimulus that enhances muscular strength and hypertrophy but can also increase reactive oxygen species production, leading to oxidative stress (OS). Numerous studies have investigated whether dietary supplements can attenuate exercise-induced OS, yet findings remain inconsistent, and methodological quality varies. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current clinical evidence on dietary supplementation for OS management in young adults undergoing intensive exercise and to evaluate study methodology critically. The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2021 guidelines and the Cochrane Risk of Bias (RoB 2.0) framework and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE (PubMed), Scopus, Cochrane Central, ClinicalTrials.gov, OpenGrey, and ISRCTN identified interventional and observational human studies assessing supplementation and OS biomarkers. Forty-six studies met the inclusion criteria. The analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity in study design and reporting quality. Frequent methodological limitations included incomplete reporting of allocation concealment, participant and investigator blinding, examiner involvement, and deviations from intended interventions. Despite these limitations, several studies reported favorable effects of specific supplements on OS modulation and post-exercise recovery. Overall, the findings highlight widespread methodological shortcomings and emphasize the need for standardized trial designs, consistent biomarker selection, and transparent reporting. Well-designed, long-term randomized controlled trials are required to establish robust, evidence-based guidelines for dietary supplement use in managing exercise-induced OS in young adults. Full article

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14 pages, 233 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intra- and Inter-Rater Reliability of a Systematic Video Analysis of ACL Injuries in Elite Men’s Football

by Sara F. Oliveira, Maria M. Castela, Konstantinos Spyrou, António P. Veloso and João Brito

Sports 2026, 14(7), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070284 - 6 Jul 2026

Abstract

While systematic video analysis is widely used to understand anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury mechanisms and contexts, human observation reliability remains a source of concern. This study evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a systematic video-analysis checklist for assessing ACL injuries in [...] Read more.

While systematic video analysis is widely used to understand anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury mechanisms and contexts, human observation reliability remains a source of concern. This study evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability of a systematic video-analysis checklist for assessing ACL injuries in elite men’s football. Twenty-five match-related injuries from the top six European leagues (2020–2024) were randomly selected. Independent observers assessed contextual and situational (sunny weather, match minute, playing phase, field location, injury side, dominant leg, and situational pattern), biomechanical (player contact and anatomical area of player contact), and neurocognitive (attentional inhibition and motor response inhibition) variables. Reliability was calculated using Cohen’s kappa (

κ

) and Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC). Quantitative variables and macro-contextual factors, including injury side, playing phase, and situational pattern (0.810 <

κ

< 1.000) revealed near-perfect to perfect agreement. Biomechanical details exhibited substantial agreement (0.601 <

κ

< 0.784). Neurocognitive variables only reached moderate to substantial agreement (0.503 <

κ

< 0.752), while visual speed estimations proved highly unreliable (−0.106 <

κ

< 0.412). The checklist is a highly reliable tool for evaluating the contextual and situational patterns of ACL injuries, but visual speed estimation should be removed or replaced by objective tracking technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Biomechanics and Neuromuscular Aspects of Lower Limb Sports Injuries)

30 pages, 4166 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Inter-Limb Muscle Asymmetries in Youth Athletes: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Single-Leg Jump and Change of Direction Speed Outcomes

by Adam Maszczyk, Mariola Gepfert, Przemysław Pietraszewski, Anna Zwierzchowska and Adam Zając

Sports 2026, 14(7), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070283 - 6 Jul 2026

Abstract

The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize current evidence on inter-limb asymmetries in youth athletes and to determine their magnitude, developmental determinants, and functional relevance. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Six databases were searched [...] Read more.

The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize current evidence on inter-limb asymmetries in youth athletes and to determine their magnitude, developmental determinants, and functional relevance. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Six databases were searched from inception to October 2025. Studies assessing asymmetry as a between-limb difference in athletes aged 6–18 years were included. A total of 25 studies (N = 4125) were included qualitatively, with 24 included in the quantitative analyses. Meta-analyses were conducted for comparable outcomes (single-leg countermovement jump [SLCMJ], change of direction speed [COD], association with sprint performance, and maturation effects) using random-effects models and heterogeneity assessment (I², τ²). Mean asymmetry was 10.8% for SLCMJ (95% CI: 6.7–14.9; I² = 78%) and 7.4% for COD (95% CI: 0.5–14.2; I² = 64%). The association between asymmetry and sprint performance was small and not statistically significant (r = −0.27; 95% CI: −0.55 to 0.07). Maturation analysis showed a moderate effect (d = 0.35; 95% CI: 0.18–0.52), with peak asymmetry around peak height velocity (PHV). Heterogeneity was mainly explained by sport-specific demands and methodological differences. Asymmetries of approximately 10% are commonly observed in youth athletes in single-leg jump and change of direction tests, but their clinical relevance likely depends on sport-specific demands, maturation status, and testing modality, and should not be interpreted as a universal normative threshold. The lack of prospective injury data prevents the establishment of universal clinical thresholds. In conclusion, inter-limb asymmetries are common and developmentally dynamic in youth athletes, with functional relevance depending on biological and sport-specific context. Future research should prioritize methodological standardization and prospective designs. Full article

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20 pages, 1573 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mental Toughness and 2K Rowing Performance in Division II Female Collegiate Athletes: A Longitudinal Analysis Using Mixed-Effects Modeling

by Zacharias Papadakis and Andreas Stamatis

Sports 2026, 14(7), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070282 - 6 Jul 2026

Abstract

Mental toughness (MT) may contribute to within-athlete rowing performance variation, yet longitudinal evidence remains sparse. This pilot study examined within-athlete associations between MT and 2K ergometer performance across a competitive season in Division II female rowers. Twelve athletes (age 20.8 ± 2.1 years) [...] Read more.

Mental toughness (MT) may contribute to within-athlete rowing performance variation, yet longitudinal evidence remains sparse. This pilot study examined within-athlete associations between MT and 2K ergometer performance across a competitive season in Division II female rowers. Twelve athletes (age 20.8 ± 2.1 years) completed the mental toughness index (MTI) before four standardized 2K time trials. Performance was modeled using a linear mixed-effects model with a random intercept for the athlete. The MTI was decomposed into within- and between-athlete components, with the timepoint as a categorical covariate. Small-sample inference used CR2 cluster-robust standard errors with Satterthwaite degrees of freedom. Performance improved mid-season relative to baseline (Timepoint 3: −7.29 s; 95% CI [−13.29, −1.29]; p = 0.023). The within-athlete MTI association was small and imprecise (β = −0.48 s/point; 95% CI [−1.56, 0.59]; p = 0.311), and the between-athlete MTI was unassociated with performance (β = 0.70; p = 0.667). Stable between-athlete differences dominated over variability (ICC = 0.946; R²_m = 0.033; R²_c = 0.948). The within-athlete MTI estimate was small and imprecise; given the wide compatibility interval, both the direction and magnitude of the association remain highly uncertain, and this inconclusive finding should not be interpreted as evidence of absence. Future studies with larger samples and key covariates (e.g., training load and illness/injury) are needed to confirm these preliminary estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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15 pages, 2451 KB

Open AccessArticle

Weekend Cyclists vs. Regular Cyclists: Association of Physical Training Distribution on Performance, Cardiometabolic Parameters and Muscle Oxygen Saturation

by José González, Daniela Campos, Rafael Gutiérrez-Pino, Gerardo Weisstaub, Carlos Sepúlveda and Rodrigo Troncoso

Sports 2026, 14(7), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070281 - 3 Jul 2026

Abstract

Weekend cyclists are individuals who engage in vigorous physical activity only on weekends, as opposed to those who exercise regularly during the week. Research suggests that concentrating physical training on one or two days may benefit heart health and metabolism, similar to exercising [...] Read more.

Weekend cyclists are individuals who engage in vigorous physical activity only on weekends, as opposed to those who exercise regularly during the week. Research suggests that concentrating physical training on one or two days may benefit heart health and metabolism, similar to exercising regularly. However, it remains unclear whether weekend cyclists exhibit similar adaptations in metabolic, performance, and muscle oxygenation markers. The aim of this study is to compare cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, cardiometabolic risk markers, muscle strength, and muscle oxygenation between cyclists who concentrated training on weekends and cyclists who distributed training across three or more days per week. In this study, we used an analytical, observational, non-experimental design that recruited 28 cyclists, divided into weekend cyclists (n = 14) and regular cyclists (n = 14). Body composition, blood tests, lower body strength, aerobic capacity, and muscle oxygen saturation were assessed. Results: Weekend cyclists exhibited lower VO₂max (36.7 ± 3.9 vs. 48.9 ± 6.3 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹), lower knee extension strength (3.16 ± 0.57 vs. 4.42 ± 0.83 Nm·kg⁻¹), and reduced ΔSmO₂ responses during exercise compared with regular cyclists (all p < 0.05). In addition, weekend cyclists presented higher body fat percentage (25.9 ± 3.8 vs. 17.2 ± 4.2%), greater waist circumference (90.5 ± 4.3 vs. 83.6 ± 5.1 cm), and lower HDL cholesterol levels (54.2 ± 8.4 vs. 64.1 ± 11.0 mg/dL). In conclusion, weekend cyclists have lower cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and reduced ΔSmO₂ responses during incremental exercise, along with higher levels of visceral fat and triglycerides, compared to those who train three or more days a week. The distribution and frequency of training within their workout plans were associated with differences in cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiometabolic markers. Full article

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23 pages, 1534 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sport Motivation and Mental Health Outcomes Among Padel Players in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional PLS-SEM Study

by Yousef Saad Aldabayan, Ibrahim A. Elshaer, Youssef Kooli, Mansour Alyahya and Chokri Kooli

Sports 2026, 14(7), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070280 - 3 Jul 2026

Abstract

The rapid evolution of Padel in Saudi Arabia (SA) has positioned the sport as a popular recreational and social activity, mainly among young adults. However, limited research has examined how different forms of sport motivation are associated with mental health outcomes in this [...] Read more.

The rapid evolution of Padel in Saudi Arabia (SA) has positioned the sport as a popular recreational and social activity, mainly among young adults. However, limited research has examined how different forms of sport motivation are associated with mental health outcomes in this emerging context. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study investigated the associations between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and depression, stress, and anxiety among Padel players in SA. A quantitative, cross-sectional online survey was conducted with a sample of 475 players, the majority of whom were aged 17–35 and held at least a bachelor’s degree. Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the relationships between multidimensional motivation factors and mental health symptoms. The findings revealed a nuanced, at times paradoxical, pattern of relationships. Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (engaging in an activity because of the positive sensations, excitement, enjoyment, or stimulation that the activity itself provides, rather than for external rewards or pressures) was consistently associated with lower levels of depression, stress, and anxiety, suggesting that enjoyment-driven involvement is associated with better mental health outcomes. In contrast, intrinsic motivation to accomplish was positively correlated with all three mental health indicators, indicating that achievement-oriented engagement might intensify emotional pressure. Among extrinsic motivations, external regulation was significantly associated with poorer mental health outcomes. In contrast, introjected regulation unexpectedly displayed a negative association with psychological distress, demonstrating a potentially adaptive role in this setting. Identified regulation, however, was not significantly associated with any mental health symptoms. These results underscore the “double-edged” nature of sport motivation, showing that not all internal or external motives yield uniformly positive consequences. The study contributed to the growing literature by providing a context-specific understanding of how motivational dynamics function within a rapidly growing sport in Saudi Arabia. In practice, the findings suggested that enjoyment-based involvement was associated with more favourable mental health outcomes, whereas performance-related pressures might be associated with less favourable outcomes. Full article

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19 pages, 290 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Intensity Functional Concurrent Training for Physical Fitness, Body Composition, and Psychological Outcomes in Schoolchildren: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

by Natalia Durán-López, Carlos Gómez-García, Antonio Ranchal-Sanchez, Valentina Lucena-Jurado, Victoria Moyano-Ortega, Ana Lara-Barahona Ostos and Jose Manuel Jurado-Castro

Sports 2026, 14(7), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070279 - 3 Jul 2026

Abstract

High-intensity functional concurrent training (HIFCT) has emerged as a form of training characterized by constantly varied functional movements adapted to individual fitness levels. Previous studies have reported positive effects on muscular strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, and psychological well-being; however, evidence regarding HIFCT [...] Read more.

High-intensity functional concurrent training (HIFCT) has emerged as a form of training characterized by constantly varied functional movements adapted to individual fitness levels. Previous studies have reported positive effects on muscular strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, and psychological well-being; however, evidence regarding HIFCT interventions in school-aged children remains limited. Therefore, the aim of the present study protocol is to evaluate the effects of an 8-week HIFCT programme on muscular strength, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, anxiety, stress, and self-esteem in children aged 10–12 years. Physical fitness, anthropometric variables, and psychological outcomes will be assessed before and after the intervention using validated field-based tests and questionnaires. This study may provide novel evidence regarding the feasibility, safety, and potential effects of HIFCT programmes in the school setting. The study protocol was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT07552844) and approved by the Córdoba Research Ethics Committee (IMIBIC, Córdoba, Spain; protocol code SICEIA-2025-000408). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Strength, Power Responses and Adaptations to Resistance Training)

15 pages, 4227 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Visual Feedback Availability on Aerobic Performance and Pacing Strategy During a 5 km Running Time Trial

by Lucas Henrique Gonçalves de Brito, Anderson Geremias Macedo, Autran José da Silva Júnior, Tiago André Freire de Almeida, Danilo Alexandre Massini, Dalton Muller Pessôa Filho and Wonder Passoni Higino

Sports 2026, 14(7), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14070278 - 3 Jul 2026

Abstract

Running is a widely practiced exercise modality in which central and peripheral fatigue can influence performance and pacing strategy. This study investigated the influence of cognitive–emotional factors, based on the psychobiological model of fatigue, on 5 km time trial performance using a randomized [...] Read more.

Running is a widely practiced exercise modality in which central and peripheral fatigue can influence performance and pacing strategy. This study investigated the influence of cognitive–emotional factors, based on the psychobiological model of fatigue, on 5 km time trial performance using a randomized crossover design. Twenty-two recreational male runners (23.0 ± 3.05 years) completed four laboratory visits. During the first visit, participants underwent body composition assessment and an incremental test to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) and the velocity associated with VO₂max. In the subsequent three visits, participants performed a 5 km treadmill time trial as fast as possible under three conditions: no feedback (5k-NF), distance-only feedback (5k-Dist), and full feedback (5k-FF). No significant differences in performance were observed between conditions (5k-FF: 24.3 ± 1.8 min; 5k-NF: 24.8 ± 2.1 min; 5k-Dist: 24.7 ± 2.7 min). Regardless of the condition, ratings of perceived exertion and heart rate increased progressively throughout the trials. Other physiological variables showed similar responses across conditions. These findings indicate that manipulating feedback availability during a 5 km time trial did not significantly alter performance or physiological responses under the specific laboratory conditions examined, despite that the true absolute absence of effect should be interpreted with appropriate caution. Full article

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