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Gas Sensors

A topical collection in Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This collection belongs to the section "Chemical Sensors".

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Editor

Department of Engineering, Messina University, Piazza Pugliatti, 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
Interests: synthesis of novel sensing materials; nanostructured materials for chemical and electrochemical sensing; metal oxide semiconductor-based gas sensors; biosensors; fabrication of chemical sensors; environmental sensors; automotive gas sensors; biomedical sensors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Gas sensors play an important role in many aspects of technology, in fields such as industrial processes, automotive technologies, environmental monitoring, or air quality assurance, to name just a few, and are increasingly becoming part of our day-to-day lives at work and home. Today’s devices exploit numerous solid-state, electrochemical, optical and other phenomena related to gas sensing. Research and development of gas sensor devices continue to be faced with numerous challenges in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and many other aspects. Thus, while the fundamental understanding of underlying sensing processes continues to improve, the discovery of novel functional sensing materials open up new opportunities, the format/architecture of gas sensors is rapidly changing. In recent decades, the evolution of sensors has been strongly influenced by ICT technologies, with integration of microcontrollers, wireless communications modules, and permanent data storage. New sensing technology platforms provide the ability to monitor, control, optimize, and provide autonomy to smart, connected devices, enabled by advances in component miniaturization, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), low-power devices, onboard processing, and Internet-connected “cloud” computing.  

This Topical Collection on 'Gas Sensors' aims to cover the above-mentioned aspects regarding gas sensors. Key issues, such as the developments of novel gas sensing materials, new insights in gas sensing mechanisms, new devices and fabrication technologies, testing and characterization of micro- and nano-fabricated systems for gas sensing, are, therefore, collected together to give an overview of the recent fundamental and applied research carried out in this field. Topics covered are:

  • Gas sensing materials
  • Principles and phenomena of gas sensing
  • Gas-sensing mechanisms
  • Gas sensor technologies
  • Micro- and nanofabrication
  • Applications

Prof. Dr. Giovanni Neri
Collection Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Published Papers (56 papers)

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017

10 pages, 5890 KiB  
Communication
Ultrathin Platinum Film Hydrogen Sensors with a Twin-T Type Notch Filter Circuit
by Shoki Wakabayashi, Yuki Oh, Haruhito Nakayama, Jin Wang and Toshihiko Kiwa
Sensors 2024, 24(2), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020548 - 15 Jan 2024
Viewed by 487
Abstract
In recent years, hydrogen energy has garnered attention as a potential solution for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. However, concerns regarding the inherent risk of hydrogen gas leakage and potential explosions have necessitated the development of advanced sensors. Within our research group, we have [...] Read more.
In recent years, hydrogen energy has garnered attention as a potential solution for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. However, concerns regarding the inherent risk of hydrogen gas leakage and potential explosions have necessitated the development of advanced sensors. Within our research group, we have innovated an ultrathin platinum (Pt) film hydrogen sensor that gauges resistance changes in Pt thin films when exposed to hydrogen gas. Notably, the sensitivity of each sensor is contingent upon the thickness of the Pt film. To address the challenge of detecting hydrogen using multiple sensors, we integrated the ultrathin Pt film as a resistance element within a twin-T type notch filter. This filter exhibits a distinctive reduction in output signals at a specific frequency. The frequency properties of the notch filter dynamically alter with changes in the resistance of the Pt film induced by hydrogen exposure. Consequently, the ultrathin Pt film hydrogen sensor monitors output signal variations around the notch frequency, responding to shifts in frequency properties. This innovative approach enables the electrical control of sensor sensitivity by adjusting the operating frequency in proximity to the notch frequency. Additionally, the simultaneous detection of hydrogen by multiple sensors was successfully achieved by interconnecting sensors with distinct notch frequencies in series. Full article
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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017

13 pages, 4339 KiB  
Article
Ethanol-Gas-Sensing Performances of Built-in ZrO2/Co3O4 Hybrid Nanostructures
by Madiha Khan, Angelo Ferlazzo, Mozaffar Hussain, Enza Fazio, Carmelo Corsaro, Angela Maria Mezzasalma and Giovanni Neri
Sensors 2023, 23(23), 9578; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23239578 - 02 Dec 2023
Viewed by 873
Abstract
The development of novel nanomaterials as highly efficient gas-sensing materials is envisaged as one of the most important routes in the field of gas-sensing research. However, developing stable, selective, and efficient materials for these purposes is a highly challenging task requiring numerous design [...] Read more.
The development of novel nanomaterials as highly efficient gas-sensing materials is envisaged as one of the most important routes in the field of gas-sensing research. However, developing stable, selective, and efficient materials for these purposes is a highly challenging task requiring numerous design attempts. In this work, a ZrO2/Co3O4 composite is reported, for the first time, as a gas-sensing material for the detection of ethanol. The sensitive and selective detection of ethanol gas at 200 °C has been demonstrated for the ZrO2/Co3O4 (0.20 wt%/0.20 wt%)-based sensor. Furthermore, the sensor showed a very low response/recovery time of 56 s and 363 s, respectively, in response to a pulse of 20 ppm of ethanol and good stability. The interesting gas-sensing property of ZrO2/Co3O4 can be ascribed to both the porous structure, which facilitates the interaction between the target gas and the sensing site, and the p–p-junction-induced built-in electric field. These results indicate that the ZrO2/Co3O4 composite can serve as a heterostructured nanomaterial for the detection of ethanol gas. Full article
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28 pages, 5360 KiB  
Review
Gas-Sensing Mechanisms and Performances of MXenes and MXene-Based Heterostructures
by Riya Alice B. John, Karthikeyan Vijayan, Ni Luh Wulan Septiani, Andri Hardiansyah, A Ruban Kumar, Brian Yuliarto and Angga Hermawan
Sensors 2023, 23(21), 8674; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218674 - 24 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1408
Abstract
MXenes are a class of 2D transition-metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides with exceptional properties, including substantial electrical and thermal conductivities, outstanding mechanical strength, and a considerable surface area, rendering them an appealing choice for gas sensors. This manuscript provides a comprehensive analysis of [...] Read more.
MXenes are a class of 2D transition-metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides with exceptional properties, including substantial electrical and thermal conductivities, outstanding mechanical strength, and a considerable surface area, rendering them an appealing choice for gas sensors. This manuscript provides a comprehensive analysis of heterostructures based on MXenes employed in gas-sensing applications and focuses on addressing the limited understanding of the sensor mechanisms of MXene-based heterostructures while highlighting their potential to enhance gas-sensing performance. The manuscript begins with a broad overview of gas-sensing mechanisms in both pristine materials and MXene-based heterostructures. Subsequently, it explores various features of MXene-based heterostructures, including their composites with other materials and their prospects for gas-sensing applications. Additionally, the manuscript evaluates different engineering strategies for MXenes and compares their advantages to other materials while discussing the limitations of current state-of-the-art sensors. Ultimately, this review seeks to foster collaboration and knowledge exchange within the field, facilitating the development of high-performance gas sensors based on MXenes. Full article
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30 pages, 2562 KiB  
Review
Semiconductor Gas Sensors for Detecting Chemical Warfare Agents and Their Simulants
by Zygfryd Witkiewicz, Krzysztof Jasek and Michał Grabka
Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3272; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063272 - 20 Mar 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3117
Abstract
On-site detection of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) can be performed by various analytical techniques. Devices using well-established techniques such as ion mobility spectrometry, flame photometry, infrared and Raman spectroscopy or mass spectrometry (usually combined with gas chromatography) are quite complex and expensive to [...] Read more.
On-site detection of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) can be performed by various analytical techniques. Devices using well-established techniques such as ion mobility spectrometry, flame photometry, infrared and Raman spectroscopy or mass spectrometry (usually combined with gas chromatography) are quite complex and expensive to purchase and operate. For this reason, other solutions based on analytical techniques well suited to portable devices are still being sought. Analyzers based on simple semiconductor sensors may be a potential alternative to the currently used CWA field detectors. In sensors of this type, the conductivity of the semiconductor layer changes upon interaction with the analyte. Metal oxides (both in the form of polycrystalline powders and various nanostructures), organic semiconductors, carbon nanostructures, silicon and various composites that are a combination of these materials are used as a semiconductor material. The selectivity of a single oxide sensor can be adjusted to specific analytes within certain limits by using the appropriate semiconductor material and sensitizers. This review presents the current state of knowledge and achievements in the field of semiconductor sensors for CWA detection. The article describes the principles of operation of semiconductor sensors, discusses individual solutions used for CWA detection present in the scientific literature and makes a critical comparison of them. The prospects for the development and practical application of this analytical technique in CWA field analysis are also discussed. Full article
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23 pages, 4403 KiB  
Article
The Gas Sensing Drone with the Lowered and Lifted Measurement Platform
by Andrzej Szczurek, Dawid Gonstał and Monika Maciejewska
Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031253 - 21 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2400
Abstract
A serious factor that limits the environmental applications of drones is the disturbance of the air pollution concentration field by the drone propulsion system. This work presents a gas-sensing drone offering measurements that are unaffected by this phenomenon. The novel development was based [...] Read more.
A serious factor that limits the environmental applications of drones is the disturbance of the air pollution concentration field by the drone propulsion system. This work presents a gas-sensing drone offering measurements that are unaffected by this phenomenon. The novel development was based on the idea that, during measurements, the sensing device should be spatially separated from a zone influenced by the drone’s rotors. To attain this goal, special equipment was designed that allows one to undock and lower the sensing device for measurement, lift it and dock for flight. The field experiments demonstrated the full functionality of the developed system and its superiority compared to a sensing platform mounted at the bottom of the drone. Higher measurement sensitivity and resolution were attained by lowering the sensing platform to the measurement point. This solution minimizes the rotor flow effect, ground effect, and pollution concentration field flattening. The test in real conditions confirmed that the designed construction assures drone stability. The presented technology may be an important step in developing effective mobile measurement tools that allow one to reach poorly accessible or dangerous places and perform measurements at a low cost and with high efficiency. Full article
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14 pages, 20922 KiB  
Article
Gas Sensor with Different Morphology of PANI Layer
by Jiri Kroutil, Alexandr Laposa, Vojtech Povolny, Ladislav Klimsa and Miroslav Husak
Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1106; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031106 - 18 Jan 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1866
Abstract
This work presents the design of a polymer-film-based sensor for gas detection. Different types of polyaniline are used as active layers. The advantages of resistive sensors with PANI layers are easy preparation and low production cost. At room temperature, polymer films have a [...] Read more.
This work presents the design of a polymer-film-based sensor for gas detection. Different types of polyaniline are used as active layers. The advantages of resistive sensors with PANI layers are easy preparation and low production cost. At room temperature, polymer films have a high sensitivity to gas concentrations. The developed sensor works on the idea of electrical resistance shifting with gas concentration. Three different polymerization solutions are employed to synthesize the polyaniline (PANI) active layers (aqueous solution, sulfuric acid solution, and acetic acid solution). Active layers are evaluated in a controlled environment for their ability to detect ammonia, carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide, acetone, toluene, and relative humidity in synthetic air. PANI layers polymerized in acetic acid solutions exhibit good sensitivity toward ammonia. Full article
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18 pages, 1143 KiB  
Article
Photoactivated Processes on the Surface of Metal Oxides and Gas Sensitivity to Oxygen
by Artem Chizhov, Pavel Kutukov, Artyom Astafiev and Marina Rumyantseva
Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031055 - 17 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1795
Abstract
Photoactivation by UV and visible radiation is a promising approach for the development of semiconductor gas sensors with reduced power consumption, high sensitivity, and stability. Although many hopeful results were achieved in this direction, the theoretical basis for the processes responsible for the [...] Read more.
Photoactivation by UV and visible radiation is a promising approach for the development of semiconductor gas sensors with reduced power consumption, high sensitivity, and stability. Although many hopeful results were achieved in this direction, the theoretical basis for the processes responsible for the photoactivated gas sensitivity still needs to be clarified. In this work, we investigated the mechanisms of UV-activated processes on the surface of nanocrystalline ZnO, In2O3, and SnO2 by in situ mass spectrometry and compared the obtained results with the gas sensitivity to oxygen in the dark and at UV irradiation. The results revealed a correlation between the photoactivated oxygen isotopic exchange activity and UV-activated oxygen gas sensitivity of the studied metal oxides. To interpret the data obtained, a model was proposed based on the idea of the generation of additional oxygen vacancies under UV irradiation due to the interaction with photoexcited holes. Full article
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17 pages, 6508 KiB  
Article
A Chemiresistor Sensor Array Based on Graphene Nanostructures: From the Detection of Ammonia and Possible Interfering VOCs to Chemometric Analysis
by Sonia Freddi, Michele Vergari, Stefania Pagliara and Luigi Sangaletti
Sensors 2023, 23(2), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020882 - 12 Jan 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2164
Abstract
Sensor arrays are currently attracting the interest of researchers due to their potential of overcoming the limitations of single sensors regarding selectivity, required by specific applications. Among the materials used to develop sensor arrays, graphene has not been so far extensively exploited, despite [...] Read more.
Sensor arrays are currently attracting the interest of researchers due to their potential of overcoming the limitations of single sensors regarding selectivity, required by specific applications. Among the materials used to develop sensor arrays, graphene has not been so far extensively exploited, despite its remarkable sensing capability. Here we present the development of a graphene-based sensor array prepared by dropcasting nanostructure and nanocomposite graphene solution on interdigitated substrates, with the aim to investigate the capability of the array to discriminate several gases related to specific applications, including environmental monitoring, food quality tracking, and breathomics. This goal is achieved in two steps: at first the sensing properties of the array have been assessed through ammonia exposures, drawing the calibration curves, estimating the limit of detection, which has been found in the ppb range for all sensors, and investigating stability and sensitivity; then, after performing exposures to acetone, ethanol, 2-propanol, sodium hypochlorite, and water vapour, chemometric tools have been exploited to investigate the discrimination capability of the array, including principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and Mahalanobis distance. PCA shows that the array was able to discriminate all the tested gases with an explained variance around 95%, while with an LDA approach the array can be trained to accurately recognize unknown gas contribution, with an accuracy higher than 94%. Full article
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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017

12 pages, 4034 KiB  
Article
Compact GC-QEPAS for On-Site Analysis of Chemical Threats
by Nicola Liberatore, Roberto Viola, Sandro Mengali, Luca Masini, Federico Zardi, Ivan Elmi and Stefano Zampolli
Sensors 2023, 23(1), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010270 - 27 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1917
Abstract
This paper reports on a compact, portable, and selective chemical sensor for hazardous vapors at trace levels, which is under development and validation within the EU project H2020 “RISEN”. Starting from the prototype developed for a previous EU project, here, we implemented an [...] Read more.
This paper reports on a compact, portable, and selective chemical sensor for hazardous vapors at trace levels, which is under development and validation within the EU project H2020 “RISEN”. Starting from the prototype developed for a previous EU project, here, we implemented an updated two-stage purge and trap vapor pre-concentration system, a more compact MEMS- based fast gas-chromatographic separation module (Compact-GC), a new miniaturized quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) detector, and a new compact laser source. The system provides two-dimensional selectivity combining GC retention time and QEPAS spectral information and was specifically designed to be rugged, portable, suitable for on-site analysis of a crime scene, with accurate response in few minutes and in the presence of strong chemical background. The main upgrades of the sensor components and functional modules will be presented in detail, and test results with VOCs, simulants of hazardous chemical agents, and drug precursors will be reported and discussed. Full article
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13 pages, 5880 KiB  
Article
Towards a Miniaturized Photoacoustic Detector for the Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis of SO2F2 and Refrigerants
by Hassan Yassine, Christian Weber, Nicolas Brugger, Jürgen Wöllenstein and Katrin Schmitt
Sensors 2023, 23(1), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010180 - 24 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1729
Abstract
Sulfuryl fluoride (SO2F2) is a toxic and potent greenhouse gas that is currently widely used as a fumigant insecticide in houses, food, and shipping containers. Though it poses a major hazard to humans, its detection is still carried out [...] Read more.
Sulfuryl fluoride (SO2F2) is a toxic and potent greenhouse gas that is currently widely used as a fumigant insecticide in houses, food, and shipping containers. Though it poses a major hazard to humans, its detection is still carried out manually and only on a random basis. In this paper, we present a two-chamber photoacoustic approach for continuous SO2F2 sensing. Because of the high toxicity of SO2F2, the concept is to use a non-toxic substituent gas with similar absorption characteristics in the photoacoustic detector chamber, i.e., to measure SO2F2 indirectly. The refrigerants R227ea, R125, R134a, and propene were identified as possible substituents using a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic analysis. The resulting infrared spectra were used to simulate the sensitivity of the substituents of a photoacoustic sensor to SO2F2 in different concentration ranges and at different optical path lengths. The simulations showed that R227ea has the highest sensitivity to SO2F2 among the substituents and is therefore a promising substituent detector gas. Simulations concerning the possible cross-sensitivity of the photoacoustic detectors to H2O and CO2 were also performed. These results are the first step towards the development of a miniaturized, sensitive, and cost-effective photoacoustic sensor system for SO2F2. Full article
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30 pages, 7537 KiB  
Article
Adsorbed Oxygen Ions and Oxygen Vacancies: Their Concentration and Distribution in Metal Oxide Chemical Sensors and Influencing Role in Sensitivity and Sensing Mechanisms
by Engin Ciftyurek, Zheshen Li and Klaus Schierbaum
Sensors 2023, 23(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010029 - 20 Dec 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3593
Abstract
Oxidation reactions on semiconducting metal oxide (SMOs) surfaces have been extensively worked on in catalysis, fuel cells, and sensors. SMOs engage powerfully in energy-related applications such as batteries, supercapacitors, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), and sensors. A deep understanding of SMO surface and [...] Read more.
Oxidation reactions on semiconducting metal oxide (SMOs) surfaces have been extensively worked on in catalysis, fuel cells, and sensors. SMOs engage powerfully in energy-related applications such as batteries, supercapacitors, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), and sensors. A deep understanding of SMO surface and oxygen interactions and defect engineering has become significant because all of the above-mentioned applications are based on the adsorption/absorption and consumption/transportation of adsorbed (physisorbed-chemisorbed) oxygen. More understanding of adsorbed oxygen and oxygen vacancies (VO,VO) is needed, as the former is the vital requirement for sensing chemical reactions, while the latter facilitates the replenishment of adsorbed oxygen ions on the surface. We determined the relation between sensor response (sensitivity) and the amounts of adsorbed oxygen ions (O2(ads), O(ads), O2(ads)2, O(ads)2), water/hydroxide groups (H2O/OH), oxygen vacancies (VO, VO), and ordinary lattice oxygen ions (Olattice2) as a function of temperature. During hydrogen (H2) testing, the different oxidation states (W6+, W5+, and W4+) of WO3 were quantified and correlated with oxygen vacancy formation (VO, VO). We used a combined application of XPS, UPS, XPEEM-LEEM, and chemical, electrical, and sensory analysis for H2 sensing. The sensor response was extraordinarily high: 424 against H2 at a temperature of 250 °C was recorded and explained on the basis of defect engineering, including oxygen vacancies and chemisorbed oxygen ions and surface stoichiometry of WO3. We established a correlation between the H2 sensing mechanism of WO3, sensor signal magnitude, the amount of adsorbed oxygen ions, and sensor testing temperature. This paper also provides a review of the detection, quantification, and identification of different adsorbed oxygen species. The different surface and bulk-sensitive characterization techniques relevant to analyzing the SMOs-based sensor are tabulated, providing the sensor designer with the chemical, physical, and electronic information extracted from each technique. Full article
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16 pages, 6288 KiB  
Article
Atmospheric Pressure Solvothermal Synthesis of Nanoscale SnO2 and Its Application in Microextrusion Printing of a Thick-Film Chemosensor Material for Effective Ethanol Detection
by Nikita A. Fisenko, Ivan A. Solomatov, Nikolay P. Simonenko, Artem S. Mokrushin, Philipp Yu. Gorobtsov, Tatiana L. Simonenko, Ivan A. Volkov, Elizaveta P. Simonenko and Nikolay T. Kuznetsov
Sensors 2022, 22(24), 9800; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249800 - 14 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
The atmospheric pressure solvothermal (APS) synthesis of nanocrystalline SnO2 (average size of coherent scattering regions (CSR)—7.5 ± 0.6 nm) using tin acetylacetonate as a precursor was studied. The resulting nanopowder was used as a functional ink component in microextrusion printing of a [...] Read more.
The atmospheric pressure solvothermal (APS) synthesis of nanocrystalline SnO2 (average size of coherent scattering regions (CSR)—7.5 ± 0.6 nm) using tin acetylacetonate as a precursor was studied. The resulting nanopowder was used as a functional ink component in microextrusion printing of a tin dioxide thick film on the surface of a Pt/Al2O3/Pt chip. Synchronous thermal analysis shows that the resulting semiproduct is transformed completely into tin dioxide nanopowder at 400 °C within 1 h. The SnO2 powder and the resulting film were shown to have a cassiterite-type structure according to X-ray diffraction analysis, and IR spectroscopy was used to establish the set of functional groups in the material composition. The microstructural features of the tin dioxide powder were analyzed using scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy: the average size of the oxide powder particles was 8.2 ± 0.7 nm. Various atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques were employed to investigate the topography of the oxide film and to build maps of surface capacitance and potential distribution. The temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of the printed SnO2 film was studied using impedance spectroscopy. The chemosensory properties of the formed material when detecting H2, CO, NH3, C6H6, C3H6O and C2H5OH, including at varying humidity, were also examined. It was demonstrated that the obtained SnO2 film has an increased sensitivity (the sensory response value was 1.4–63.5) and selectivity for detection of 4–100 ppm C2H5OH at an operating temperature of 200 °C. Full article
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13 pages, 1944 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Olfactory Quality of Roasted Coffee Beans Using a Digital Nose
by Juan Diego Barea-Ramos, Gema Cascos, Marta Mesías, Jesús Lozano and Daniel Martín-Vertedor
Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8654; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228654 - 09 Nov 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2303
Abstract
The roasting process is one of the critical points to obtain a product of the highest quality with certain sensorial properties including the aroma of coffee. Samples of coffee beans were roasted at different thermal treatment intensities with the aim of obtaining aromatic [...] Read more.
The roasting process is one of the critical points to obtain a product of the highest quality with certain sensorial properties including the aroma of coffee. Samples of coffee beans were roasted at different thermal treatment intensities with the aim of obtaining aromatic compounds detected with an electronic device. Sensory analysis, volatile compound profiling, and electronic nose analysis were carried out. Through principal component analysis (95.8% of the total variance of the data was explained by PC1 and PC2) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (the sum of the diagonal elements gave a hit rate of 94%), it could be demonstrated that the E-nose is able to discriminate roasted coffee beans subjected to different thermal treatments. Aromatic profiling was carried out by a testing panel and volatile compounds (VOCs) for the discrimination of roasted coffee samples. Alcohols, aromatics, esters, ketones and furanone were found in higher proportions in samples at the lowest thermal treatment. The VOCs with positive attributes were 1-(4-nitrophenyl)-3-phenylamino-propenone, carboxylic acids, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, and 2-phenylethyl alcohol, while the compounds with negative ones were 2-methyl-furan, 2,5-dimethyl-pyridine, 2-methyl-butanal, and 2-furfurylthiol. The PLS model allows for the quantification of the positive and negative aromas (RCV2 = 0.92) of roasted coffee by using the E-nose. Therefore, the E-nose, that is, an inexpensive and nondestructive instrument, could be a chemometric tool able to discriminate between different qualities of coffee during processing. Full article
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22 pages, 90488 KiB  
Article
Correction Model for Metal Oxide Sensor Drift Caused by Ambient Temperature and Humidity
by Abdulnasser Nabil Abdullah, Kamarulzaman Kamarudin, Latifah Munirah Kamarudin, Abdul Hamid Adom, Syed Muhammad Mamduh, Zaffry Hadi Mohd Juffry and Victor Hernandez Bennetts
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3301; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093301 - 26 Apr 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3095
Abstract
For decades, Metal oxide (MOX) gas sensors have been commercially available and used in various applications such as the Smart City, gas monitoring, and safety due to advantages such as high sensitivity, a high detection range, fast reaction time, and cost-effectiveness. However, several [...] Read more.
For decades, Metal oxide (MOX) gas sensors have been commercially available and used in various applications such as the Smart City, gas monitoring, and safety due to advantages such as high sensitivity, a high detection range, fast reaction time, and cost-effectiveness. However, several factors affect the sensing ability of MOX gas sensors. This article presents the results of a study on the cross-sensitivity of MOX gas sensors toward ambient temperature and humidity. A gas sensor array consisting of temperature and humidity sensors and four different MOX gas sensors (MiCS-5524, GM-402B, GM-502B, and MiCS-6814) was developed. The sensors were subjected to various relative gas concentrations, temperatures (from 16 °C to 30 °C), and humidity levels (from 75% to 45%), representing a typical indoor environment. The results proved that the gas sensor responses were significantly affected by the temperature and humidity. The increased temperature and humidity levels led to a decreased response for all sensors, except for MiCS-6814, which showed the opposite response. Hence, this work proposed regression models for each sensor, which can correct the gas sensor response drift caused by the ambient temperature and humidity variations. The models were validated, and the standard deviations of the corrected sensor response were found to be 1.66 kΩ, 13.17 kΩ, 29.67 kΩ, and 0.12 kΩ, respectively. These values are much smaller compared to the raw sensor response (i.e., 18.22, 24.33 kΩ, 95.18 kΩ, and 2.99 kΩ), indicating that the model provided a more stable output and minimised the drift. Overall, the results also proved that the models can be used for MOX gas sensors employed in the training process, as well as for other sets of gas sensors. Full article
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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017

13 pages, 2860 KiB  
Communication
Identification of Specific Substances in the FAIMS Spectra of Complex Mixtures Using Deep Learning
by Hua Li, Jiakai Pan, Hongda Zeng, Zhencheng Chen, Xiaoxia Du and Wenxiang Xiao
Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6160; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186160 - 14 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2162
Abstract
High-field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) spectra of single chemicals are easy to interpret but identifying specific chemicals within complex mixtures is difficult. This paper demonstrates that the FAIMS system can detect specific chemicals in complex mixtures. A homemade FAIMS system is used [...] Read more.
High-field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) spectra of single chemicals are easy to interpret but identifying specific chemicals within complex mixtures is difficult. This paper demonstrates that the FAIMS system can detect specific chemicals in complex mixtures. A homemade FAIMS system is used to analyze pure ethanol, ethyl acetate, acetone, 4-methyl-2-pentanone, butanone, and their mixtures in order to create datasets. An EfficientNetV2 discriminant model was constructed, and a blind test set was used to verify whether the deep-learning model is capable of the required task. The results show that the pre-trained EfficientNetV2 model completed convergence at a learning rate of 0.1 as well as 200 iterations. Specific substances in complex mixtures can be effectively identified using the trained model and the homemade FAIMS system. Accuracies of 100%, 96.7%, and 86.7% are obtained for ethanol, ethyl acetate, and acetone in the blind test set, which are much higher than conventional methods. The deep learning network provides higher accuracy than traditional FAIMS spectral analysis methods. This simplifies the FAIMS spectral analysis process and contributes to further development of FAIMS systems. Full article
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12 pages, 44837 KiB  
Communication
Magnesium Zirconate Titanate Thin Films Used as an NO2 Sensing Layer for Gas Sensor Applications Developed Using a Sol–Gel Method
by Pei-Shan Huang, Ke-Jing Lee and Yeong-Her Wang
Sensors 2021, 21(8), 2825; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21082825 - 16 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2269
Abstract
Magnesium zirconate titanate (MZT) thin films, used as a sensing layer on Al interdigitated electrodes prepared using a sol–gel spin-coating method, are demonstrated in this study. The p-type MZT/Al/SiO2/Si structure for sensing NO2 is also discussed. The results indicated that [...] Read more.
Magnesium zirconate titanate (MZT) thin films, used as a sensing layer on Al interdigitated electrodes prepared using a sol–gel spin-coating method, are demonstrated in this study. The p-type MZT/Al/SiO2/Si structure for sensing NO2 is also discussed. The results indicated that the best sensitivity of the gas sensor occurred when it was operating at a temperature ranging from 100 to 150 °C. The detection limit of the sensor was as low as 250 ppb. The sensitivity of the MZT thin film was 8.64% and 34.22% for 0.25 ppm and 5 ppm of NO2 gas molecules at a working temperature of 150 °C, respectively. The gas sensor also exhibited high repeatability and selectivity for NO2. The response values to 250, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, and 5000 ppb NO2 at 150 °C were 8.64, 9.52, 12, 16.63, 20.3, 23, and 34.22%, respectively. Additionally, we observed a high sensing linearity in NO2 gas molecules. These results indicate that MZT-based materials have potential applications for use as gas sensors. Full article
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16 pages, 5622 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of ZnAl2O4 and Evaluation of the Response in Propane Atmospheres of Pellets and Thick Films Manufactured with Powders of the Oxide
by Emilio Huízar-Padilla, Héctor Guillén-Bonilla, Alex Guillén-Bonilla, Verónica-María Rodríguez-Betancourtt, A. Sánchez-Martínez, José Trinidad Guillen-Bonilla, Lorenzo Gildo-Ortiz and Juan Reyes-Gómez
Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2362; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072362 - 29 Mar 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2515
Abstract
ZnAl2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized employing a colloidal method. The oxide powders were obtained at 300 °C, and their crystalline phase was corroborated by X-ray diffraction. The composition and chemical structure of the ZnAl2O4 was carried out by [...] Read more.
ZnAl2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized employing a colloidal method. The oxide powders were obtained at 300 °C, and their crystalline phase was corroborated by X-ray diffraction. The composition and chemical structure of the ZnAl2O4 was carried out by X-ray and photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The optical properties were studied by UV-vis spectroscopy, confirming that the ZnAl2O4 nanoparticles had a direct transition with bandgap energy of 3.2 eV. The oxide’s microstructures were microbars of ~18.2 nm in size (on average), as analyzed by scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopies. Dynamic and stationary gas detection tests were performed in controlled propane atmospheres, obtaining variations concerning the concentration of the test gas and the operating temperature. The optimum temperatures for detecting propane concentrations were 200 and 300 °C. In the static test results, the ZnAl2O4 showed increases in propane response since changes in the material’s electrical conductance were recorded (conductance = 1/electrical resistance, Ω). The increases were ~2.8 at 200 °C and ~7.8 at 300 °C. The yield shown by the ZnAl2O4 nanoparticles for detecting propane concentrations was optimal compared to other similar oxides categorized as potential gas sensors. Full article
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11 pages, 29551 KiB  
Communication
TiO2 Nanorods and Pt Nanoparticles under a UV-LED for an NO2 Gas Sensor at Room Temperature
by Jinhong Noh, Soon-Hwan Kwon, Sunghoon Park, Kyoung-Kook Kim and Yong-Jin Yoon
Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1826; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051826 - 05 Mar 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3312
Abstract
Because the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) cause detrimental effects on not only the environment but humans, developing a high-performance NO2 gas sensor is a crucial issue for real-time monitoring. To this end, metal oxide semiconductors have been employed for sensor [...] Read more.
Because the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) cause detrimental effects on not only the environment but humans, developing a high-performance NO2 gas sensor is a crucial issue for real-time monitoring. To this end, metal oxide semiconductors have been employed for sensor materials. Because in general, semiconductor-type gas sensors require a high working temperature, photoactivation has emerged as an alternative method for realizing the sensor working at room temperature. In this regard, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a promising material for its photocatalytic ability with ultraviolet (UV) photonic energy. However, TiO2-based sensors inevitably encounter a problem of recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs, which occurs in a short time. To address this challenge, in this study, TiO2 nanorods (NRs) and Pt nanoparticles (NPs) under a UV-LED were used as an NO2 gas sensor to utilize the Schottky barrier formed at the TiO2-Pt junction, thereby capturing the photoactivated electrons by Pt NPs. The separation between the electron-hole pairs might be further enhanced by plasmonic effects. In addition, it is reported that annealing TiO2 NRs can achieve noteworthy improvements in sensing performance. Elucidation of the performance enhancement is suggested with the investigation of the X-ray diffraction patterns, which implies that the crystallinity was improved by the annealing process. Full article
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9 pages, 2398 KiB  
Communication
Highly Fast Response of Pd/Ta2O5/SiC and Pd/Ta2O5/Si Schottky Diode-Based Hydrogen Sensors
by Muhammad Hussain, Woonyoung Jeong, Il-Suk Kang, Kyeong-Keun Choi, Syed Hassan Abbas Jaffery, Asif Ali, Tassawar Hussain, Muhammad Ayaz, Sajjad Hussain and Jongwan Jung
Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041042 - 03 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2770
Abstract
Herein, the fabrication of a novel highly sensitive and fast hydrogen (H2) gas sensor, based on the Ta2O5 Schottky diode, is described. First, Ta2O5 thin films are deposited on silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon (Si) [...] Read more.
Herein, the fabrication of a novel highly sensitive and fast hydrogen (H2) gas sensor, based on the Ta2O5 Schottky diode, is described. First, Ta2O5 thin films are deposited on silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon (Si) substrates via a radio frequency (RF) sputtering method. Then, Pd and Ni are respectively deposited on the front and back of the device. The deposited Pd serves as a H2 catalyst, while the Ni functions as an Ohmic contact. The devices are then tested under various concentrations of H2 gas at operating temperatures of 300, 500, and 700 °C. The results indicate that the Pd/Ta2O5 Schottky diode on the SiC substrate exhibits larger concentration and temperature sensitivities than those of the device based on the Si substrate. In addition, the optimum operating temperature of the Pd/Ta2O5 Schottky diode for use in H2 sensing is shown to be about 300 °C. At this optimum temperature, the dynamic responses of the sensors towards various concentrations of H2 gas are then examined under a constant bias current of 1 mA. The results indicate a fast rise time of 7.1 s, and a decay of 18 s, for the sensor based on the SiC substrate. Full article
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2020

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17 pages, 3807 KiB  
Article
Correlation between Microstructure and Chemical Composition of Zinc Oxide Gas Sensor Layers and Their Gas-Sensitive Properties in Chlorine Atmosphere
by Marta Fiedot-Toboła, Patrycja Suchorska-Woźniak, Kamila Startek, Olga Rac-Rumijowska, Rafał Szukiewicz, Monika Kwoka and Helena Teterycz
Sensors 2020, 20(23), 6951; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236951 - 05 Dec 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2722
Abstract
In this article, we present results concerning the impact of structural and chemical properties of zinc oxide in various morphological forms and its gas-sensitive properties, tested in an atmosphere containing a very aggressive gas such as chlorine. The aim of this research was [...] Read more.
In this article, we present results concerning the impact of structural and chemical properties of zinc oxide in various morphological forms and its gas-sensitive properties, tested in an atmosphere containing a very aggressive gas such as chlorine. The aim of this research was to understand the mechanism of chlorine detection using a resistive gas sensor with an active layer made of zinc oxide with a different structure and morphology. Two types of ZnO sensor layers obtained by two different technological methods were used in sensor construction. Their morphology, crystal structure, specific surface area, porosity, surface chemistry and structural defects were characterized, and then compared with gas-sensitive properties in a chlorine-containing atmosphere. To achieve this goal, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL) methods were used. The sensing properties of obtained active layers were tested by the temperature stimulated conductance method (TSC). We have noticed that their response in a chlorine atmosphere is not determined by the size of the specific surface or porosity. The obtained results showed that the structural defects of ZnO crystals play the most important role in chlorine detection. We demonstrated that Cl2 adsorption is a concurrent process to oxygen adsorption. Both of them occur on the same active species (oxygen vacancies). Their concentration is higher on the side planes of the zinc oxide crystal than the others. Additionally, ZnO sublimation process plays an important role in the chlorine detection mechanism. Full article
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9 pages, 2590 KiB  
Letter
Oxygen Gas Sensing with Photothermal Spectroscopy in a Hollow-Core Negative Curvature Fiber
by Yingzhen Hong, Haihong Bao, Wei Jin, Shoulin Jiang, Hoi Lut Ho, Shoufei Gao and Yingying Wang
Sensors 2020, 20(21), 6084; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216084 - 26 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
We demonstrate a compact all-fiber oxygen sensor using photothermal interferometry with a short length (4.3 cm) of hollow-core negative curvature fibers. The hollow-core fiber has double transmission windows covering both visible and near-infrared wavelength regions. Absorption of a pump laser beam at 760 [...] Read more.
We demonstrate a compact all-fiber oxygen sensor using photothermal interferometry with a short length (4.3 cm) of hollow-core negative curvature fibers. The hollow-core fiber has double transmission windows covering both visible and near-infrared wavelength regions. Absorption of a pump laser beam at 760 nm produces photothermal phase modulation and a probe Fabry-Perot interferometer operating at 1550 nm is used to detect the phase modulation. With wavelength modulation and first harmonic detection, a limit of detection down to 54 parts per million (ppm) with a 600-s averaging time is achieved, corresponding to a normalized equivalent absorption of 7.7 × 10−8 cm−1. The oxygen sensor has great potential for in situ detection applications. Full article
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20 pages, 4331 KiB  
Review
A Review of Inkjet Printed Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes Based Gas Sensors
by Twinkle Pandhi, Ashita Chandnani, Harish Subbaraman and David Estrada
Sensors 2020, 20(19), 5642; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20195642 - 02 Oct 2020
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6197
Abstract
Graphene and carbon nanotube (CNT)-based gas/vapor sensors have gained much traction for numerous applications over the last decade due to their excellent sensing performance at ambient conditions. Inkjet printing various forms of graphene (reduced graphene oxide or modified graphene) and CNT (single-wall nanotubes [...] Read more.
Graphene and carbon nanotube (CNT)-based gas/vapor sensors have gained much traction for numerous applications over the last decade due to their excellent sensing performance at ambient conditions. Inkjet printing various forms of graphene (reduced graphene oxide or modified graphene) and CNT (single-wall nanotubes (SWNTs) or multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs)) nanomaterials allows fabrication onto flexible substrates which enable gas sensing applications in flexible electronics. This review focuses on their recent developments and provides an overview of the state-of-the-art in inkjet printing of graphene and CNT based sensors targeting gases, such as NO2, Cl2, CO2, NH3, and organic vapors. Moreover, this review presents the current enhancements and challenges of printing CNT and graphene-based gas/vapor sensors, the role of defects, and advanced printing techniques using these nanomaterials, while highlighting challenges in reliability and reproducibility. The future potential and outlook of this rapidly growing research are analyzed as well. Full article
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20 pages, 2710 KiB  
Review
ZnO Metal Oxide Semiconductor in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors: A Review
by Izabela Constantinoiu and Cristian Viespe
Sensors 2020, 20(18), 5118; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185118 - 08 Sep 2020
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6089
Abstract
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) gas sensors are of continuous development interest to researchers due to their sensitivity, short detection time, and reliability. Among the most used materials to achieve the sensitive film of SAW sensors are metal oxide semiconductors, which are highlighted by [...] Read more.
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) gas sensors are of continuous development interest to researchers due to their sensitivity, short detection time, and reliability. Among the most used materials to achieve the sensitive film of SAW sensors are metal oxide semiconductors, which are highlighted by thermal and chemical stability, by the presence on their surface of free electrons and also by the possibility of being used in different morphologies. For different types of gases, certain metal oxide semiconductors are used, and ZnO is an important representative for this category of materials in the field of sensors. Having a great potential for the development of SAW sensors, the discussion related to the development of the sensitivity of metal oxide semiconductors, especially ZnO, by the synthesis method or by obtaining new materials, is suitable and necessary to have an overview of the latest results in this domain. Full article
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19 pages, 4892 KiB  
Article
Cr-Doped Urchin-Like WO3 Hollow Spheres: The Cooperative Modulation of Crystal Growth and Energy-Band Structure for High-Sensitive Acetone Detection
by Qiongling Ding, Yanrong Wang, Pengqian Guo, Jianjun Li, Chen Chen, Ting Wang, Kai Sun and Deyan He
Sensors 2020, 20(12), 3473; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20123473 - 19 Jun 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4401
Abstract
Acetone is a biomarker in the exhaled breath of diabetic patients; sensitive and selective detection of acetone in human exhaled breath plays an important role in noninvasive diagnosis. Tungsten oxide (especially for γ-WO3) is a promising material for the detection of [...] Read more.
Acetone is a biomarker in the exhaled breath of diabetic patients; sensitive and selective detection of acetone in human exhaled breath plays an important role in noninvasive diagnosis. Tungsten oxide (especially for γ-WO3) is a promising material for the detection of breath acetone. It is generally believed that the stable metastable phase of WO3 (ε-WO3) is the main reason for the improved response to acetone detection. In this work, pure and Cr-doped urchin-like WO3 hollow spheres were synthesized by a facile hydrothermal approach. Analyses of the resulting materials via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman confirmed that they are mainly composed by γ-WO3. The gas sensing performances of pure and Cr-doped WO3 to acetone were systematically tested. Results show that the sensor based on pure WO3 annealed at 450 °C has a high response of 20.32 toward 100 ppm acetone at a working temperature of 250 °C. After doped with Cr, the response was increased 3.5 times higher than the pure WO3 sensor. The pure and Cr-doped WO3 sensors both exhibit a tiny response to other gases, low detection limits (ppb-level) and an excellent repeatability. The improvement of gas sensing properties could be attributed to an optimized morphology of Cr-doped WO3 by regulating the crystal growth and reducing the assembled nanowires’ diameter. The increasing number of oxygen vacancy and the introduction of impurity energy level with trap effect after Cr doping would lead to the wider depletion layer as well as a better gas sensing performance. This work will contribute to the development of new WO3 acetone sensors with a novel morphology and will explain the increased response after Cr doping from a new perspective. Full article
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15 pages, 2797 KiB  
Article
A Suppression Method of Concentration Background Noise by Transductive Transfer Learning for a Metal Oxide Semiconductor-Based Electronic Nose
by Huixiang Liu, Qing Li, Zhiyong Li and Yu Gu
Sensors 2020, 20(7), 1913; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20071913 - 30 Mar 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2335
Abstract
Signal drift caused by sensors or environmental changes, which can be regarded as data distribution changes over time, is related to transductive transfer learning, and the data in the target domain is not labeled. We propose a method that learns a subspace with [...] Read more.
Signal drift caused by sensors or environmental changes, which can be regarded as data distribution changes over time, is related to transductive transfer learning, and the data in the target domain is not labeled. We propose a method that learns a subspace with maximum independence of the concentration features (MICF) according to the Hilbert-Schmidt Independence Criterion (HSIC), which reduces the inter-concentration discrepancy of distributions. Then, we use Iterative Fisher Linear Discriminant (IFLD) to extract the signal features by reducing the divergence within classes and increasing the divergence among classes, which helps to prevent inconsistent ratios of different types of samples among the domains. The effectiveness of MICF and IFLD was verified by three sets of experiments using sensors in real world conditions, along with experiments conducted in the authors’ laboratory. The proposed method achieved an accuracy of 76.17%, which was better than any of the existing methods that publish their data on a publicly available dataset (the Gas Sensor Drift Dataset). It was found that the MICF-IFLD was simple and effective, reduced interferences, and deftly managed tasks of transfer classification. Full article
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2019

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11 pages, 4627 KiB  
Article
Low Energy Pulsed Laser Excitation in UV Enhances the Gas Sensing Capacity of Photoluminescent ZnO Nanohybrids
by Argyro Klini, Maria Androulidaki and Demetrios Anglos
Sensors 2019, 19(24), 5490; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19245490 - 12 Dec 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2673
Abstract
Nanohybrids, composed of luminescent zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles dispersed in an inert polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix, exhibit an excellent ability to follow changes in the type and composition of their surrounding atmosphere. These changes are found to affect the UV photoluminescence (PL) emission of [...] Read more.
Nanohybrids, composed of luminescent zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles dispersed in an inert polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix, exhibit an excellent ability to follow changes in the type and composition of their surrounding atmosphere. These changes are found to affect the UV photoluminescence (PL) emission of the ZnO-PDMS hybrids measured at room temperature. The influence of irradiation parameters, such as excitation intensity and wavelength, on the response of the ZnO-PDMS sensor against ethanol and oxygen, have been systematically investigated in a comparative study performed employing pulsed excitation at 248 and 355 nm. This study represents the first demonstration that the sensing performance of the PL-based ZnO sensors can be optimized by tuning the excitation parameters and it particularly illustrates that maintaining a low pump energy density is crucial for enhancing the sensitivity of the sensor achieving response values approaching 100%. Full article
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41 pages, 9421 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in Palladium Nanoparticles-Based Hydrogen Sensors for Leak Detection
by Cynthia Cibaka Ndaya, Nicolas Javahiraly and Arnaud Brioude
Sensors 2019, 19(20), 4478; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19204478 - 16 Oct 2019
Cited by 81 | Viewed by 9232
Abstract
Along with the development of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier, it is imperative to develop very rapid and sensitive hydrogen leaks sensors due to the highly explosive and flammable character of this gas. For this purpose, palladium-based materials are being widely investigated [...] Read more.
Along with the development of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier, it is imperative to develop very rapid and sensitive hydrogen leaks sensors due to the highly explosive and flammable character of this gas. For this purpose, palladium-based materials are being widely investigated by research teams because of the high affinity between this metal and hydrogen. Furthermore, nanostructured palladium may provide improved sensing performances compared to the use of bulk palladium. This arises from a higher effective surface available for interaction of palladium with the hydrogen gas molecules. Several works taking advantage of palladium nanostructures properties for hydrogen sensing applications have been published. This paper reviews the recent advances reported in the literature in this scope. The electrical and optical detection techniques, most common ones, are investigated and less common techniques such as gasochromic and surface wave acoustic sensors are also addressed. Here, the sensor performances are mostly evaluated by considering their response time and limit of detection. Full article
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20 pages, 5476 KiB  
Article
Fully Inkjet-Printed CuO Sensor on Flexible Polymer Substrate for Alcohol Vapours and Humidity Sensing at Room Temperature
by Petr Krcmar, Ivo Kuritka, Jan Maslik, Pavel Urbanek, Pavel Bazant, Michal Machovsky, Pavol Suly and Petr Merka
Sensors 2019, 19(14), 3068; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19143068 - 11 Jul 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4476
Abstract
This work focuses on an inkjet-fabricated sensor based on copper oxide nanostructured particles on polymer flexible substrate for the sensing of alcohol vapours and humidity at room temperature. Nanoparticles were prepared by a microwave-assisted solvothermal sealed vessel synthesis method. The ink composition was [...] Read more.
This work focuses on an inkjet-fabricated sensor based on copper oxide nanostructured particles on polymer flexible substrate for the sensing of alcohol vapours and humidity at room temperature. Nanoparticles were prepared by a microwave-assisted solvothermal sealed vessel synthesis method. The ink composition was developed on the basis of viscosity and surface tension optimization by the addition of polymeric steric surfactant and dispersant. The printing process was optimized with the help of non-dimensional criteria. Silver nanoink was used for the printing of an interdigitated pattern on a PET substrate which was overprinted by the copper oxide ink, thus obtaining a flexible flat sensor. Material design and all fabrication steps of the sensor respected the temperature limitation given by the thermal stability of the polymer substrate. Printed layers and motifs were characterized microscopically and by resistance measurement. The effectiveness of the prepared sensor was demonstrated and studied by measuring the response to saturated vapours at room temperature. The sensing layer showed the opposite resistance response to stimuli than expected for the well-known p-type sensing mechanism of CuO sensors operated at high temperatures. In addition to vapour sorption, condensation and desorption influencing electron, proton and ionic conductivity, manifestation of another mechanism was observed and an explanation suggested in terms of the electrochemical mechanism. Full article
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12 pages, 9249 KiB  
Article
The Investigation of a SAW Oxygen Gas Sensor Operated at Room Temperature, Based on Nanostructured ZnxFeyO Films
by Lin Shu, Tao Jiang, Yudong Xia, Xuemin Wang, Dawei Yan and Weidong Wu
Sensors 2019, 19(13), 3025; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19133025 - 09 Jul 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3866
Abstract
In this paper, we report a wireless gas sensor based on surface acoustic waves (SAW). For room temperature detection of oxygen gas, a novel nanostructured ZnxFeyO gas-sensitive film was deposited on the surface of a SAW resonator by an [...] Read more.
In this paper, we report a wireless gas sensor based on surface acoustic waves (SAW). For room temperature detection of oxygen gas, a novel nanostructured ZnxFeyO gas-sensitive film was deposited on the surface of a SAW resonator by an oblique magnetron co-sputtering method. The measurements of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed that the crystal phase composition and the microstructures of ZnxFeyO films were significantly affected by the content of Fe. The experimental results showed that the sensors had a good response to O2 at room temperature. The max frequency shift of the sensors reached 258 kHz as the O2 partial pressure was 20%. Moreover, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed to analyze the role of Fe in the sensitization process of the ZnxFeyO film. In addition, the internal relationship between the Fe content of the film and the sensitivity of the sensor was presented and discussed. The research indicates that the nanostructured ZnxFeyO film has a good potential for room temperature O2 gas detection applications. Full article
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11 pages, 3079 KiB  
Article
A Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer-Based Resonant Sensor Array for Portable Volatile Organic Compound Detection with Wireless Systems
by Inug Yoon, Gayoung Eom, Sungwoo Lee, Bo Kyeong Kim, Sang Kyung Kim and Hyunjoo J. Lee
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061401 - 21 Mar 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6421
Abstract
The development of portable volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors is essential for home healthcare and workplace safety because VOCs are environmental pollutants that may critically affect human health. Here, we report a compact and portable sensor platform based on a capacitive micromachined ultrasonic [...] Read more.
The development of portable volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors is essential for home healthcare and workplace safety because VOCs are environmental pollutants that may critically affect human health. Here, we report a compact and portable sensor platform based on a capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array offering multiplex detection of various VOCs (toluene, acetone, ethanol, and methanol) using a single read-out system. Three CMUT resonant devices were functionalized with three different layers: (1) phenyl-selective peptide, (2) colloids of single-walled nanotubes and peptide, and (3) poly(styrene-co-allyl alcohol). As each device exhibited different sensitivities to the four VOCs, we performed principal component analysis to achieve selective detection of all four gases. For the simultaneous detection of VOCs using CMUT sensors, the changes in the resonant frequencies of three devices were monitored in real time, but using only a single oscillator through an electrically controlled relay to achieve compactness. In addition, by devising a wireless system, measurement results were transmitted to a smartphone to monitor the concentration of VOCs. We used multiple sensors to obtain a larger number of fingerprints for pattern recognition to enhance selectivity but interfaced these sensors with a single read-out circuit to minimize the footprint of the overall system. The compact CMUT-based sensor array based on a multiplex detection scheme is a promising sensor platform for portable VOC monitoring. Full article
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13 pages, 3429 KiB  
Article
Detection of Triacetone Triperoxide (TATP) Precursors with an Array of Sensors Based on MoS2/RGO Composites
by Qihua Sun, Zhaofeng Wu, Haiming Duan and Dianzeng Jia
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1281; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061281 - 13 Mar 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 16830
Abstract
Triacetone triperoxide (TATP) is a self-made explosive synthesized from the commonly used chemical acetone (C3H6O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). As C3H6O and H2O2 are the precursors of TATP, [...] Read more.
Triacetone triperoxide (TATP) is a self-made explosive synthesized from the commonly used chemical acetone (C3H6O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). As C3H6O and H2O2 are the precursors of TATP, their detection is very important due to the high risk of the presence of TATP. In order to detect the precursors of TATP effectively, hierarchical molybdenum disulfide/reduced graphene oxide (MoS2/RGO) composites were synthesized by a hydrothermal method, using two-dimensional reduced graphene oxide (RGO) as template. The effects of the ratio of RGO to raw materials for the synthesis of MoS2 on the morphology, structure, and gas sensing properties of the MoS2/RGO composites were studied. It was found that after optimization, the response to 50 ppm of H2O2 vapor was increased from 29.0% to 373.1%, achieving an increase of about 12 times. Meanwhile, all three sensors based on MoS2/RGO composites exhibited excellent anti-interference performance to ozone with strong oxidation. Furthermore, three sensors based on MoS2/RGO composites were fabricated into a simple sensor array, realizing discriminative detection of three target analytes in 14.5 s at room temperature. This work shows that the synergistic effect between two-dimensional RGO and MoS2 provides new possibilities for the development of high performance sensors. Full article
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10 pages, 8637 KiB  
Article
Resonant Photoacoustic Spectroscopy of NO2 with a UV-LED Based Sensor
by Johannes Kapp, Christian Weber, Katrin Schmitt, Hans-Fridtjof Pernau and Jürgen Wöllenstein
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 724; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030724 - 11 Feb 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6675
Abstract
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a poisonous trace gas that requires monitoring in urban areas. Accurate measurement in sub-ppm concentrations represents a wide application field for suitable economical sensors. We present a novel approach to measure NO2 with a photoacoustic sensor [...] Read more.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a poisonous trace gas that requires monitoring in urban areas. Accurate measurement in sub-ppm concentrations represents a wide application field for suitable economical sensors. We present a novel approach to measure NO2 with a photoacoustic sensor using a T-shaped resonance cell. An inexpensive UV-LED with a peak wavelength of 405 nm as radiation source as well as a commercial MEMS microphone for acoustic detection were used. In this work, a cell has been developed that enables a “non-contact” feedthrough of the divergent LED beam. Thus, unwanted background noise due to absorption on the inside walls is minimized. As part of the development, an acoustic simulation has been carried out to find the resonance frequencies and to visualize the resulting standing wave patterns in various geometries. The pressure amplitude was calculated for different shapes and sizes. A model iteratively optimized in this way forms the basis of a construction that was built for gas measurement by rapid prototyping methods. The real resonance frequencies were compared to the ones found in simulation. The limit of detection was determined in a nitrogen dioxide measurement to be 200 ppb (6 σ) for a cell made of aluminum. Full article
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2018

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16 pages, 7474 KiB  
Article
An Application of the Gaussian Plume Model to Localization of an Indoor Gas Source with a Mobile Robot
by Jorge Edwin Sánchez-Sosa, Juan Castillo-Mixcóatl, Georgina Beltrán-Pérez and Severino Muñoz-Aguirre
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4375; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124375 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4565
Abstract
The source localization of gas leaks is important to avoid any potential danger to the surroundings or the probable waste of resources. Currently there are several localization methods using robotic systems that try to find the origin of a gas plume. Many of [...] Read more.
The source localization of gas leaks is important to avoid any potential danger to the surroundings or the probable waste of resources. Currently there are several localization methods using robotic systems that try to find the origin of a gas plume. Many of these methods require wind velocity information involving the use of commercial anemometric systems which are extremely expensive compared to metal oxide gas sensors. This article proposes the validation of the Gaussian plume model inside an empty room and its application to localize the source of a gas plume without employing anemometric sensors, exclusively using concentration data. The model was selected due to its simplicity and since it easily admits variants closer to reality, explaining the behavior of pollutants transported by the wind. An artificial gas source was generated by a conventional fan and liquid ethanol as contaminant. We found that the physical fan, far from making the model impossible to implement, enriched the information and added realism. The use of a robotic system capable of autonomously mapping the room concentration distribution is described. The results showed that the Gaussian plume model is applicable to localize our experimental gas source. An estimated position of the source with a deviation of 14 cm (6.1%) was obtained. Full article
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10 pages, 4191 KiB  
Article
Surface Acoustic Wave Hydrogen Sensors Based on Nanostructured Pd/WO3 Bilayers
by Dana Miu, Ruxandra Birjega and Cristian Viespe
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3636; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18113636 - 26 Oct 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
The effect of nanostructure of PLD (Pulsed Laser Deposition)-deposited Pd/WO3 sensing films on room temperature (RT) hydrogen sensing properties of SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) sensors was studied. WO3 thin films with different morphologies and crystalline structures were obtained for different substrate [...] Read more.
The effect of nanostructure of PLD (Pulsed Laser Deposition)-deposited Pd/WO3 sensing films on room temperature (RT) hydrogen sensing properties of SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) sensors was studied. WO3 thin films with different morphologies and crystalline structures were obtained for different substrate temperatures and oxygen deposition pressures. Nanoporous films are obtained at high deposition pressures regardless of the substrate temperature. At lower pressures, high temperatures lead to WO3 c-axis nanocolumnar growth, which promotes the diffusion of hydrogen but only once H2 has been dissociated in the nanoporous Pd layer. XRD (X-ray Diffraction) analysis indicates texturing of the WO3 layer not only in the case of columnar growth but for other deposition conditions as well. However, it is only the predominantly c-axis growth that influences film sensing properties. Bilayers consisting of nanoporous Pd layers deposited on top of such WO3 layers lead to good sensing results at RT. RT sensitivities of 0.12–0.13 Hz/ppm to hydrogen are attained for nanoporous bilayer Pd/WO3 films and of 0.1 Hz/ppm for bilayer films with a nanocolumnar WO3 structure. SAW sensors based on such layers compare favorably with WO3-based hydrogen detectors, which use other sensing methods, and with SAW sensors with dense Pd/WO3 bilayers. Full article
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15 pages, 4102 KiB  
Article
Development of a Dew/Frost Point Temperature Sensor Based on Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy and Its Application in a Cryogenic Wind Tunnel
by Wei Nie, Zhenyu Xu, Ruifeng Kan, Jun Ruan, Lu Yao, Bin Wang and Yabai He
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2704; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082704 - 17 Aug 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4760
Abstract
We have proposed a sensor for real-time and online measurement of dew/frost point temperature using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) technique. Initial experiments have demonstrated its feasibility and technical advantages in comparison to a chilled mirror hygrometer (CMH). The TDLAS sensor we [...] Read more.
We have proposed a sensor for real-time and online measurement of dew/frost point temperature using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) technique. Initial experiments have demonstrated its feasibility and technical advantages in comparison to a chilled mirror hygrometer (CMH). The TDLAS sensor we developed has a dew/frost point temperature range from −93 °C to + 14.5 °C, with a measurement uncertainly of less than 2%, and a response time of about 0.8 s, which is much faster than that of the chilled mirror hygrometer (ranging from several minutes to several hours). A TDLAS-based dew/frost point sensor has many advantages, such as rapid and continuous measurements, low frost point temperature sensing, high accuracy, and non-intrusiveness. Such a sensor would be useful for dew/frost point temperature determinations in various applications. In a cryogenic wind tunnel, real-time dew/frost point temperature measurements are helpful in preventing the formation of condensed liquid and ice, which can affect the model geometry and lead to unreliable test data. Full article
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15 pages, 3965 KiB  
Article
Generalized Optical Design of the Double-Row Circular Multi-Pass Cell
by Zheng Yang, Yin Guo, Xianshun Ming and Liqun Sun
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082680 - 15 Aug 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4568
Abstract
A new design of circular multi-pass cells (CMPC) with two rows of reflection spots on mirrors is presented. The effective optical path length (OPL) of this novel CMPC is double that of traditional CMPC with the same diameter and interval of spots. This [...] Read more.
A new design of circular multi-pass cells (CMPC) with two rows of reflection spots on mirrors is presented. The effective optical path length (OPL) of this novel CMPC is double that of traditional CMPC with the same diameter and interval of spots. This OPL can be readily adjusted to have regular intervals by rough rotation adjustment. We achieved a spatial separation of pre- and post-transfer optical systems that was adequately large even in the cases with a large number of passes. Analytical chief ray tracing analysis and a generalized method for parameter determination for designing the cell are presented in detail. The stable condition of the double-row CMPC (DR-CMPC) is also derived by the ABCD matrix method. Designs with maximum effective OPL of 74.72 m, 48.67 m and 24.57 m are demonstrated and verified by ray tracing simulations within a 25 cm diameter DR-CMPC. An adjustment of the regular intervals to 1 m can be achieved in both designs. The overall astigmatism of the design with an effective OPL of 74.72 m is only 9.30 × 10−6 mm, which is four orders of magnitude smaller than that of the traditional CMPC with similar geometric parameters. Full article
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13 pages, 2931 KiB  
Article
A Hydrogen Gas Sensor Based on TiO2 Nanoparticles on Alumina Substrate
by Siti Amaniah Mohd Chachuli, Mohd Nizar Hamidon, Md. Shuhazlly Mamat, Mehmet Ertugrul and Nor Hapishah Abdullah
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2483; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082483 - 01 Aug 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5539
Abstract
High demand of semiconductor gas sensor works at low operating temperature to as low as 100 °C has led to the fabrication of gas sensor based on TiO2 nanoparticles. A sensing film of gas sensor was prepared by mixing the sensing material, [...] Read more.
High demand of semiconductor gas sensor works at low operating temperature to as low as 100 °C has led to the fabrication of gas sensor based on TiO2 nanoparticles. A sensing film of gas sensor was prepared by mixing the sensing material, TiO2 (P25) and glass powder, and B2O3 with organic binder. The sensing film was annealed at temperature of 500 °C in 30 min. The morphological and structural properties of the sensing film were characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The gas sensor was exposed to hydrogen with concentration of 100–1000 ppm and was tested at different operating temperatures which are 100 °C, 200 °C, and 300 °C to find the optimum operating temperature for producing the highest sensitivity. The gas sensor exhibited p-type conductivity based on decreased current when exposed to hydrogen. The gas sensor showed capability in sensing low concentration of hydrogen to as low as 100 ppm at 100 °C. Full article
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12 pages, 3213 KiB  
Article
A Fast and Easily-Realized Concentration Sensor for Binary Gas Mixtures and Its Design Analysis
by Yu Guan, Song Lu, Dan Zhang, Yang Hu and Wei Yuan
Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1257; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041257 - 19 Apr 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3449
Abstract
A low-cost and easily-realized sensing device used for the detection of gas mixtures at different concentrations is presented. Its sensing part includes a small critical nozzle, a laminar structure, and a differential pressure sensor. When gas flows through the laminar structure, there is [...] Read more.
A low-cost and easily-realized sensing device used for the detection of gas mixtures at different concentrations is presented. Its sensing part includes a small critical nozzle, a laminar structure, and a differential pressure sensor. When gas flows through the laminar structure, there is a pressure drop between both ends of it, and for different components of gas, the pressure drop is different. Based on this feature, the concentration detection is achieved. Concentration tests for two types of fire extinguishing agents CBrF3 and C3HF7 are presented. The results show the characteristics of fast response/recovery time, high accuracy, and good repeatability. Based on the theoretical analysis, the effects of the design parameters on the sensing performance to concentration detection are discussed in detail. Full article
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18 pages, 35707 KiB  
Article
A Fiber Optic Interferometric Sensor Platform for Determining Gas Diffusivity in Zeolite Films
by Ruidong Yang, Zhi Xu, Shixuan Zeng, Wenheng Jing, Adam Trontz and Junhang Dong
Sensors 2018, 18(4), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18041090 - 04 Apr 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4660
Abstract
Fiber optic interferometer (FOI) sensors have been fabricated by directly growing pure-silica MFI-type zeolite (i.e., silicalite) films on straight-cut endfaces of single-mode communication optical fibers. The FOI sensor has been demonstrated for determining molecular diffusivity in the zeolite by monitoring the temporal response [...] Read more.
Fiber optic interferometer (FOI) sensors have been fabricated by directly growing pure-silica MFI-type zeolite (i.e., silicalite) films on straight-cut endfaces of single-mode communication optical fibers. The FOI sensor has been demonstrated for determining molecular diffusivity in the zeolite by monitoring the temporal response of light interference from the zeolite film during the dynamic process of gas adsorption. The optical thickness of the zeolite film depends on the amount of gas adsorption that causes the light interference to shift upon loading molecules into the zeolitic channels. Thus, the time-dependence of the optical signal reflected from the coated zeolite film can represent the adsorption uptake curve, which allows computation of the diffusivity using models derived from the Fick’s Law equations. In this study, the diffusivity of isobutane in silicalite has been determined by the new FOI sensing method, and the results are in good agreement with literature values obtained by various conventional macroscopic techniques. The FOI sensor platform, because of its robustness and small size, could be useful for studying molecular diffusion in zeolitic materials under conditions that are inaccessible to the existing techniques. Full article
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9 pages, 2378 KiB  
Article
A Micro-Resonant Gas Sensor with Nanometer Clearance between the Pole Plates
by Xiaorui Fu and Lizhong Xu
Sensors 2018, 18(2), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18020362 - 26 Jan 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3639
Abstract
In micro-resonant gas sensors, the capacitive detection is widely used because of its simple structure. However, its shortcoming is a weak signal output caused by a small capacitance change. Here, we reduced the initial clearance between the pole plates to the nanometer level, [...] Read more.
In micro-resonant gas sensors, the capacitive detection is widely used because of its simple structure. However, its shortcoming is a weak signal output caused by a small capacitance change. Here, we reduced the initial clearance between the pole plates to the nanometer level, and increased the capacitance between the pole plates and its change during resonator vibration. We propose a fabricating process of the micro-resonant gas sensor by which the initial clearance between the pole plates is reduced to the nanometer level and a micro-resonant gas sensor with 200 nm initial clearance is fabricated. With this sensor, the resonant frequency shifts were measured when they were exposed to several different vapors, and high detection accuracies were obtained. The detection accuracy with respect to ethanol vapor was 0.4 ppm per Hz shift, and the detection accuracy with respect to hydrogen and ammonias vapors was 3 ppm and 0.5 ppm per Hz shift, respectively. Full article
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9 pages, 6846 KiB  
Article
A Prototype Sensor for In Situ Sensing of Fine Particulate Matter and Volatile Organic Compounds
by Chee-Loon Ng, Fuu-Ming Kai, Ming-Hui Tee, Nicholas Tan and Harold F. Hemond
Sensors 2018, 18(1), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18010265 - 18 Jan 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5840
Abstract
Air pollution exposure causes seven million deaths per year, according to the World Health Organization. Possessing knowledge of air quality and sources of air pollution is crucial for managing air pollution and providing early warning so that a swift counteractive response can be [...] Read more.
Air pollution exposure causes seven million deaths per year, according to the World Health Organization. Possessing knowledge of air quality and sources of air pollution is crucial for managing air pollution and providing early warning so that a swift counteractive response can be carried out. An optical prototype sensor (AtmOptic) capable of scattering and absorbance measurements has been developed to target in situ sensing of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). For particulate matter testing, a test chamber was constructed and the emission of PM2.5 from incense burning inside the chamber was measured using the AtmOptic. The weight of PM2.5 particles was collected and measured with a filter to determine their concentration and the sensor signal-to-concentration correlation. The results of the AtmOptic were also compared and found to trend well with the Dylos DC 1100 Pro air quality monitor. The absorbance spectrum of VOCs emitted from various laboratory chemicals and household products as well as a two chemical mixtures were recorded. The quantification was demonstrated, using toluene as an example, by calibrating the AtmOptic with compressed gas standards containing VOCs at different concentrations. The results demonstrated the sensor capabilities in measuring PM2.5 and volatile organic compounds. Full article
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2017

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5647 KiB  
Review
Porous TiO2-Based Gas Sensors for Cyber Chemical Systems to Provide Security and Medical Diagnosis
by Vardan Galstyan
Sensors 2017, 17(12), 2947; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17122947 - 19 Dec 2017
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 9294
Abstract
Gas sensors play an important role in our life, providing control and security of technical processes, environment, transportation and healthcare. Consequently, the development of high performance gas sensor devices is the subject of intense research. TiO2, with its excellent physical and [...] Read more.
Gas sensors play an important role in our life, providing control and security of technical processes, environment, transportation and healthcare. Consequently, the development of high performance gas sensor devices is the subject of intense research. TiO2, with its excellent physical and chemical properties, is a very attractive material for the fabrication of chemical sensors. Meanwhile, the emerging technologies are focused on the fabrication of more flexible and smart systems for precise monitoring and diagnosis in real-time. The proposed cyber chemical systems in this paper are based on the integration of cyber elements with the chemical sensor devices. These systems may have a crucial effect on the environmental and industrial safety, control of carriage of dangerous goods and medicine. This review highlights the recent developments on fabrication of porous TiO2-based chemical gas sensors for their application in cyber chemical system showing the convenience and feasibility of such a model to provide the security and to perform the diagnostics. The most of reports have demonstrated that the fabrication of doped, mixed and composite structures based on porous TiO2 may drastically improve its sensing performance. In addition, each component has its unique effect on the sensing properties of material. Full article
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6613 KiB  
Article
Gas Leak Detection by Dilution of Atmospheric Oxygen
by Armin Lambrecht, Eric Maier, Hans-Fridtjof Pernau, Thomas Strahl and Johannes Herbst
Sensors 2017, 17(12), 2804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17122804 - 05 Dec 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8189
Abstract
Gas leak detection is an important issue in infrastructure monitoring and industrial production. In this context, infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy is a major measurement method. It can be applied in an extractive or remote detection scheme. Tunable laser spectroscopy (TLS) instruments are able [...] Read more.
Gas leak detection is an important issue in infrastructure monitoring and industrial production. In this context, infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy is a major measurement method. It can be applied in an extractive or remote detection scheme. Tunable laser spectroscopy (TLS) instruments are able to detect CH4 leaks with column densities below 10 ppm·m from a distance of 30 m in less than a second. However, leak detection of non-IR absorbing gases such as N2 is not possible in this manner. Due to the fact that any leaking gas displaces or dilutes the surrounding background gas, an indirect detection is still possible. It is shown by sensitive TLS measurements of the ambient background concentration of O2 that N2 leaks can be localized with extractive and standoff methods for distances below 1 m. Minimum leak rates of 0.1 mbar·L/s were determined. Flow simulations confirm that the leakage gas typically effuses in a narrow jet. The sensitivity is mainly determined by ambient flow conditions. Compared to TLS detection of CH4 at 1651 nm, the indirect method using O2 at 761 nm is experimentally found to be less sensitive by a factor of 100. However, the well-established TLS of O2 may become a universal tool for rapid leakage screening of vessels that contain unknown or inexpensive gases, such as N2. Full article
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2710 KiB  
Article
Screen-Printed Graphite Electrodes as Low-Cost Devices for Oxygen Gas Detection in Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids
by Junqiao Lee, Ghulam Hussain, Craig E. Banks and Debbie S. Silvester
Sensors 2017, 17(12), 2734; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17122734 - 26 Nov 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6829
Abstract
Screen-printed graphite electrodes (SPGEs) have been used for the first time as platforms to detect oxygen gas in room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). Up until now, carbon-based SPEs have shown inferior behaviour compared to platinum and gold SPEs for gas sensing with RTIL solvents. [...] Read more.
Screen-printed graphite electrodes (SPGEs) have been used for the first time as platforms to detect oxygen gas in room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). Up until now, carbon-based SPEs have shown inferior behaviour compared to platinum and gold SPEs for gas sensing with RTIL solvents. The electrochemical reduction of oxygen (O2) in a range of RTILs has therefore been explored on home-made SPGEs, and is compared to the behaviour on commercially-available carbon SPEs (C-SPEs). Six common RTILs are initially employed for O2 detection using cyclic voltammetry (CV), and two RTILs ([C2mim][NTf2] and [C4mim][PF6]) chosen for further detailed analytical studies. Long-term chronoamperometry (LTCA) was also performed to test the ability of the sensor surface for real-time gas monitoring. Both CV and LTCA gave linear calibration graphs—for CV in the 10–100% vol. range, and for LTCA in the 0.1–20% vol. range—on the SPGE. The responses on the SPGE were far superior to the commercial C-SPEs; more instability in the electrochemical responses were observed on the C-SPEs, together with some breaking-up or dissolution of the electrode surface materials. This study highlights that not all screen-printed ink formulations are compatible with RTIL solvents for longer-term electrochemical experiments, and that the choice of RTIL is also important. Overall, the low-cost SPGEs appear to be promising platforms for the detection of O2, particularly in [C4mim][PF6]. Full article
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4071 KiB  
Article
Planar Microstrip Ring Resonators for Microwave-Based Gas Sensing: Design Aspects and Initial Transducers for Humidity and Ammonia Sensing
by Andreas Bogner, Carsten Steiner, Stefanie Walter, Jaroslaw Kita, Gunter Hagen and Ralf Moos
Sensors 2017, 17(10), 2422; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17102422 - 24 Oct 2017
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 11298
Abstract
A planar microstrip ring resonator structure on alumina was developed using the commercial FEM software COMSOL. Design parameters were evaluated, eventually leading to an optimized design of a miniaturized microwave gas sensor. The sensor was covered with a zeolite film. The device was [...] Read more.
A planar microstrip ring resonator structure on alumina was developed using the commercial FEM software COMSOL. Design parameters were evaluated, eventually leading to an optimized design of a miniaturized microwave gas sensor. The sensor was covered with a zeolite film. The device was successfully operated at around 8.5 GHz at room temperature as a humidity sensor. In the next step, an additional planar heater will be included on the reverse side of the resonator structure to allow for testing of gas-sensitive materials under sensor conditions. Full article
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10673 KiB  
Review
TiO2-Based Nanoheterostructures for Promoting Gas Sensitivity Performance: Designs, Developments, and Prospects
by Yuan Wang, Tao Wu, Yun Zhou, Chuanmin Meng, Wenjun Zhu and Lixin Liu
Sensors 2017, 17(9), 1971; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17091971 - 27 Aug 2017
Cited by 70 | Viewed by 12409
Abstract
Gas sensors based on titanium dioxide (TiO2) have attracted much public attention during the past decades due to their excellent potential for applications in environmental pollution remediation, transportation industries, personal safety, biology, and medicine. Numerous efforts have therefore been devoted to [...] Read more.
Gas sensors based on titanium dioxide (TiO2) have attracted much public attention during the past decades due to their excellent potential for applications in environmental pollution remediation, transportation industries, personal safety, biology, and medicine. Numerous efforts have therefore been devoted to improving the sensing performance of TiO2. In those effects, the construct of nanoheterostructures is a promising tactic in gas sensing modification, which shows superior sensing performance to that of the single component-based sensors. In this review, we briefly summarize and highlight the development of TiO2-based heterostructure gas sensing materials with diverse models, including semiconductor/semiconductor nanoheterostructures, noble metal/semiconductor nanoheterostructures, carbon-group-materials/semiconductor nano- heterostructures, and organic/inorganic nanoheterostructures, which have been investigated for effective enhancement of gas sensing properties through the increase of sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, decrease of optimal work temperature and response/recovery time, and minimization of detectable levels. Full article
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6342 KiB  
Article
A Fast Room Temperature NH3 Sensor Based on an Al/p-Si/Al Structure with Schottky Electrodes
by Suwan Zhu, Xiaolong Liu, Jun Zhuang and Li Zhao
Sensors 2017, 17(8), 1929; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17081929 - 22 Aug 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4837
Abstract
In this paper, an electrical-based NH3 sensor with an Al/p-Si/Al structure is reported. The p-Si substrate is microstructured by fs-laser irradiation and then etched by 30% alkaline solution. This sensor works well at room temperature with fast response/recovery for NH3 gas [...] Read more.
In this paper, an electrical-based NH3 sensor with an Al/p-Si/Al structure is reported. The p-Si substrate is microstructured by fs-laser irradiation and then etched by 30% alkaline solution. This sensor works well at room temperature with fast response/recovery for NH3 gas at 5–100 ppm concentration. However, when the sensor is annealed in N2/H2 forming gas or short-circuited for Al/Si electrodes, its sensitivity decreases drastically and almost vanishes. Further I-V and FT-IR results show that the two back-to-back Schottky diodes on the device play a key role in its sensing performance. Full article
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1377 KiB  
Article
CeO2 Enhanced Ethanol Sensing Performance in a CdS Gas Sensor
by Meishan Li, Wei Ren, Rong Wu and Min Zhang
Sensors 2017, 17(7), 1577; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071577 - 05 Jul 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5573
Abstract
CdS nanowires (NWs) were fabricated through a facile low-temperature solvothermal method, following which CeO2 nanoparticles were modified on the NWs. The ethanol sensing characteristics of pure CdS and decorated ones with different CeO2 content were studied. It was found that the [...] Read more.
CdS nanowires (NWs) were fabricated through a facile low-temperature solvothermal method, following which CeO2 nanoparticles were modified on the NWs. The ethanol sensing characteristics of pure CdS and decorated ones with different CeO2 content were studied. It was found that the sensing performance of CdS was significantly improved after CeO2 decoration. In particular, the 5 at% CeO2/CdS composite exhibited a much higher response to 100 ppm ethanol (about 52), which was 2.6 times larger than that of pure CdS. A fast response and recovery time (less than 12 s and 3 s, respectively) were obtained as well as an excellent selectivity. These results make the CeO2-decorated CdS NWs good candidates for ethanol sensing applications. Full article
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783 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Perovskite Gas Sensor Performance: Characterization, Measurement and Experimental Design
by Francesco Bertocci, Ada Fort, Valerio Vignoli, Marco Mugnaini and Rossella Berni
Sensors 2017, 17(6), 1352; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17061352 - 10 Jun 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6977
Abstract
Eight different types of nanostructured perovskites based on YCoO 3 with different chemical compositions are prepared as gas sensor materials, and they are studied with two target gases NO 2 and CO. Moreover, a statistical approach is adopted to optimize their performance. The [...] Read more.
Eight different types of nanostructured perovskites based on YCoO 3 with different chemical compositions are prepared as gas sensor materials, and they are studied with two target gases NO 2 and CO. Moreover, a statistical approach is adopted to optimize their performance. The innovative contribution is carried out through a split-plot design planning and modeling, also involving random effects, for studying Metal Oxide Semiconductors (MOX) sensors in a robust design context. The statistical results prove the validity of the proposed approach; in fact, for each material type, the variation of the electrical resistance achieves a satisfactory optimized value conditional to the working temperature and by controlling for the gas concentration variability. Just to mention some results, the sensing material YCo 0 . 9 Pd 0 . 1 O 3 (Mt1) achieved excellent solutions during the optimization procedure. In particular, Mt1 resulted in being useful and feasible for the detection of both gases, with optimal response equal to +10.23% and working temperature at 312 C for CO (284 ppm, from design) and response equal to −14.17% at 185 C for NO 2 (16 ppm, from design). Analogously, for NO 2 (16 ppm, from design), the material type YCo 0 . 9 O 2 . 85 + 1 % Pd (Mt8) allows for optimizing the response value at 15 . 39 % with a working temperature at 181 . 0 C, whereas for YCo 0 . 95 Pd 0 . 05 O 3 (Mt3), the best response value is achieved at 15 . 40 % with the temperature equal to 204 C. Full article
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20584 KiB  
Article
A Study of the CO Sensing Responses of Cu-, Pt- and Pd-Activated SnO2 Sensors: Effect of Precipitation Agents, Dopants and Doping Methods
by Venkata Krishna Karthik Tangirala, Heberto Gómez-Pozos, Ventura Rodríguez-Lugo and María De La Luz Olvera
Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17051011 - 03 May 2017
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6232
Abstract
In this work, we report the synthesis of Cu, Pt and Pd doped SnO2 powders and a comparative study of their CO gas sensing performance. Dopants were incorporated into SnO2 nanostructures using chemical and impregnation methods by using urea and ammonia [...] Read more.
In this work, we report the synthesis of Cu, Pt and Pd doped SnO2 powders and a comparative study of their CO gas sensing performance. Dopants were incorporated into SnO2 nanostructures using chemical and impregnation methods by using urea and ammonia as precipitation agents. The synthesized samples were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). The presence of dopants within the SnO2 nanostructures was evidenced from the HR-TEM results. Powders doped utilizing chemical methods with urea as precipitation agent presented higher sensing responses compared to the other forms, which is due to the formation of uniform and homogeneous particles resulting from the temperature-assisted synthesis. The particle sizes of doped SnO2 nanostructures were in the range of 40–100 nm. An enhanced sensing response around 1783 was achieved with Cu-doped SnO2 when compared with two other dopants i.e., Pt (1200) and Pd:SnO2 (502). The high sensing response of Cu:SnO2 is due to formation of CuO and its excellent association and dissociation with adsorbed atmospheric oxygen in the presence of CO at the sensor operation temperature, which results in high conductance. Cu:SnO2 may thus be an alternative and cost effective sensor for industrial applications. Full article
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1825 KiB  
Article
Non-Gaussian Resistance Fluctuations in Gold-Nanoparticle-Based Gas Sensors: An Appraisal of Different Evaluation Techniques
by Łukasz Lentka, Janusz Smulko, Mateusz Kotarski, Claes-Göran Granqvist and Radu Ionescu
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040757 - 03 Apr 2017
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4431
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds, such as formaldehyde, can be used as biomarkers in human exhaled breath in order to non-invasively detect various diseases, and the same compounds are of much interest also in the context of environmental monitoring and protection. Here, we report on [...] Read more.
Volatile organic compounds, such as formaldehyde, can be used as biomarkers in human exhaled breath in order to non-invasively detect various diseases, and the same compounds are of much interest also in the context of environmental monitoring and protection. Here, we report on a recently-developed gas sensor, based on surface-functionalized gold nanoparticles, which is able to generate voltage noise with a distinctly non-Gaussian component upon exposure to formaldehyde with concentrations on the ppm level, whereas this component is absent, or at least much weaker, when the sensor is exposed to ethanol or to pure air. We survey four different statistical methods to elucidate a non-Gaussian component and assess their pros and cons with regard to efficient gas detection. Specifically, the non-Gaussian component was clearly exposed in analysis using level-crossing parameters, which require nothing but a modest computational effort and simple electronic circuitry, and analogous results could be reached through the bispectrum function, albeit with more intense computation. Useful information could be obtained also via the Lévy-stable distribution and, possibly, the second spectrum. Full article
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3047 KiB  
Article
Gas Sensor Based on 3-D WO3 Inverse Opal: Design and Applications
by Ruiqing Xing, Yang Du, Xiaonan Zhao and Xiu Zhang
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040710 - 29 Mar 2017
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7346
Abstract
A three-dimensional inverse opal (3DIO) WO3 architecture has been synthesized via a simple sacrificial template method. Morphology features of the 3DIO were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and its structure was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The shrinking ratio of the [...] Read more.
A three-dimensional inverse opal (3DIO) WO3 architecture has been synthesized via a simple sacrificial template method. Morphology features of the 3DIO were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and its structure was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The shrinking ratio of the PMMA spheres was ~28.2% through measuring the distribution of the PMMA spheres and 3DIO WO3 center-to-center distance between the spheres and macropores, respectively. Beyond that, the 3DIO gas sensing properties were investigated systematically and the sensing mechanism of 3DIO WO3 was proposed. The results indicated that the response of the 3DIO sensor possessed excellent sensitivity to acetone gas, especially at trace levels. The 3DIO gas sensor response was ~7 to 5 ppm of acetone and could detect acetone low to 0.2 ppm effectively, which was in close proximity to the theoretical low detection limit of 0.14 ppm when Ra/Rg ≥ 1.2 was used as the criterion for reliable gas sensing. All in all, the obvious satisfaction of the gas-sensing properties was ascribed to the structure of the 3DIO, and the sensor could be a promising novel device in the future. Full article
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2663 KiB  
Review
Electrodes for Semiconductor Gas Sensors
by Sung Pil Lee
Sensors 2017, 17(4), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17040683 - 25 Mar 2017
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 15629
Abstract
The electrodes of semiconductor gas sensors are important in characterizing sensors based on their sensitivity, selectivity, reversibility, response time, and long-term stability. The types and materials of electrodes used for semiconductor gas sensors are analyzed. In addition, the effect of interfacial zones and [...] Read more.
The electrodes of semiconductor gas sensors are important in characterizing sensors based on their sensitivity, selectivity, reversibility, response time, and long-term stability. The types and materials of electrodes used for semiconductor gas sensors are analyzed. In addition, the effect of interfacial zones and surface states of electrode–semiconductor interfaces on their characteristics is studied. This study describes that the gas interaction mechanism of the electrode–semiconductor interfaces should take into account the interfacial zone, surface states, image force, and tunneling effect. Full article
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5055 KiB  
Article
Ratiometric Dissolved Oxygen Sensors Based on Ruthenium Complex Doped with Silver Nanoparticles
by Zike Jiang, Xinsheng Yu, Shikui Zhai and Yingyan Hao
Sensors 2017, 17(3), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17030548 - 09 Mar 2017
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7335
Abstract
A ratiometric optical sensor has been developed with electrospinning processing method for dissolved oxygen measurement. The sensing film is fabricated by using silver nano-particles (Ag NPs) doped with tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium(II) dichloride complex (Ru(DPP)3Cl2) encapsulated in plasticized polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). [...] Read more.
A ratiometric optical sensor has been developed with electrospinning processing method for dissolved oxygen measurement. The sensing film is fabricated by using silver nano-particles (Ag NPs) doped with tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium(II) dichloride complex (Ru(DPP)3Cl2) encapsulated in plasticized polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). An insensitive 3-(2-benzothiazolyl)-7-(diethy lamino)-(6CI,7CI) (Coumarin6) is adopted as reference. The ratio of oxygenation is calculated at each image pixel of a 3CCD camera to quantify the oxygen concentration in aqueous environment. Compared to Ag-free film, the response time of Ag-containing films were improved from 1.5 s to 1.0 s upon switching from deoxygenated to air saturation and from 65 s to 45 s from air saturation to fully deoxygenated. The response times of the Ag-free film obtained by knifing was 2.0 s upon switching from deoxygenated to air saturation and 104 s from air saturation to fully deoxygenated. Results of the evaluation of accuracy, limit of detection, stability, and photostability are presented. An experiment measuring the spatiotemporal variation of oxygen distribution within the photosynthesis and respiration of Chlorella vulgaris is demonstrated. It is shown that the nanofiber-based optical sensor film could serve as a promising method for rapid oxygen monitoring in aqueous applications. Full article
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3483 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Different Methods for Soot Sensing and Filter Monitoring in Diesel Exhausts
by Markus Feulner, Gunter Hagen, Kathrin Hottner, Sabrina Redel, Andreas Müller and Ralf Moos
Sensors 2017, 17(2), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17020400 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8496
Abstract
Due to increasingly tighter emission limits for diesel and gasoline engines, especially concerning particulate matter emissions, particulate filters are becoming indispensable devices for exhaust gas after treatment. Thereby, for an efficient engine and filter control strategy and a cost-efficient filter design, reliable technologies [...] Read more.
Due to increasingly tighter emission limits for diesel and gasoline engines, especially concerning particulate matter emissions, particulate filters are becoming indispensable devices for exhaust gas after treatment. Thereby, for an efficient engine and filter control strategy and a cost-efficient filter design, reliable technologies to determine the soot load of the filters and to measure particulate matter concentrations in the exhaust gas during vehicle operation are highly needed. In this study, different approaches for soot sensing are compared. Measurements were conducted on a dynamometer diesel engine test bench with a diesel particulate filter (DPF). The DPF was monitored by a relatively new microwave-based approach. Simultaneously, a resistive type soot sensor and a Pegasor soot sensing device as a reference system measured the soot concentration exhaust upstream of the DPF. By changing engine parameters, different engine out soot emission rates were set. It was found that the microwave-based signal may not only indicate directly the filter loading, but by a time derivative, the engine out soot emission rate can be deduced. Furthermore, by integrating the measured particulate mass in the exhaust, the soot load of the filter can be determined. In summary, all systems coincide well within certain boundaries and the filter itself can act as a soot sensor. Full article
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3809 KiB  
Article
Highly Sensitive Sensors Based on Metal-Oxide Nanocolumns for Fire Detection
by Kwangjae Lee, Young-Seok Shim, Young Geun Song, Soo Deok Han, Youn-Sung Lee and Chong-Yun Kang
Sensors 2017, 17(2), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/s17020303 - 07 Feb 2017
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7214
Abstract
A fire detector is the most important component in a fire alarm system. Herein, we present the feasibility of a highly sensitive and rapid response gas sensor based on metal oxides as a high performance fire detector. The glancing angle deposition (GLAD) technique [...] Read more.
A fire detector is the most important component in a fire alarm system. Herein, we present the feasibility of a highly sensitive and rapid response gas sensor based on metal oxides as a high performance fire detector. The glancing angle deposition (GLAD) technique is used to make the highly porous structure such as nanocolumns (NCs) of various metal oxides for enhancing the gas-sensing performance. To measure the fire detection, the interface circuitry for our sensors (NiO, SnO2, WO3 and In2O3 NCs) is designed. When all the sensors with various metal-oxide NCs are exposed to fire environment, they entirely react with the target gases emitted from Poly(vinyl chlorides) (PVC) decomposed at high temperature. Before the emission of smoke from the PVC (a hot-plate temperature of 200 °C), the resistances of the metal-oxide NCs are abruptly changed and SnO2 NCs show the highest response of 2.1. However, a commercial smoke detector did not inform any warning. Interestingly, although the NiO NCs are a p-type semiconductor, they show the highest response of 577.1 after the emission of smoke from the PVC (a hot-plate temperature of 350 °C). The response time of SnO2 NCs is much faster than that of a commercial smoke detector at the hot-plate temperature of 350 °C. In addition, we investigated the selectivity of our sensors by analyzing the responses of all sensors. Our results show the high potential of a gas sensor based on metal-oxide NCs for early fire detection. Full article
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