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Autonomous Space Navigation

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Satellite Missions for Earth and Planetary Exploration".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 19318

Special Issue Editors

1. Samsung Semiconductor, Inc., San Jose, CA 95134, USA
2. Department of Aerospace, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
Interests: navigation; positioning; sensor fusion; GNSS; INS; computer vision; robotics; estimation; autonomy; spacecraft; smartphones
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Digital and Software Engineering Department, MDA, Montreal, QC H3A 0E9, Canada
Interests: signal processing; satellite systems; GNSS; communications; digital electronics; efficient algorithms
Fugro Norway AS, 7462 Oslo, Norway
Interests: multi-constellation GNSS; precise point positioning; precise orbit/clock determination; real-time on-board orbit determination; integer ambiguity resolution; machine learning
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
Interests: spacecraft relative navigation; pose determination; electro-optical sensors; LIDAR; star tracker; unmanned aerial vehicles; autonomous navigation; sense and avoid; visual detection and tracking
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Navigation is a key functionality for existing and next-generation space missions. In many cases, due to Earth-to-space communication delays and lack of coverage, absolute and relative navigation must be directly performed on board and in real time to enable autonomous guidance and control. To do so, several technologies and algorithms can be used, depending on the specific application, the operational environment, the required accuracy and robustness, the characteristics of the space vehicle, as well as other mission-related constraints.

Although numerous solutions have already been proposed or successfully adopted in actual space missions, next-generation capabilities, such as spacecraft formation flying, highly accurate landings, proximity operations, advanced pointing precision, interplanetary trajectory or advanced robotic surface exploration require further advancements in autonomous navigation. This is especially true when using very small space vehicles, for which the accuracy, robustness and autonomy are typically limited due to on-board constraints such as power, mass, volume and computational resources.

This Special Issue aims to portray an overview of recent research trends on this matter. It encourages original research contributions and state-of-the-art reviews from academia and industry that focus on innovative technologies, methods and algorithms for autonomous navigation of spacecraft also when orbiting in proximity of other space objects. Potential topics include but are not limited to:

  • Technologies, methods and algorithms for autonomous absolute spacecraft navigation, based on the use of GNSS, IMU, star trackers, and other sensors;
  • Spacecraft relative navigation and pose determination using GNSS, RF ranging and/or electro optical sensors;
  • Autonomous navigation and situational awareness in deep space exploration scenarios (e.g., hazard detection and precise landing);
  • Design, integration, and calibration of innovative multi-sensor-based architectures for spacecraft navigation;
  • Artificial intelligence and machine learning for autonomous spacecraft navigation.

Dr. Vincenzo Capuano
Dr. Jérôme Leclère
Dr. Javier Tegedor
Dr. Roberto Opromolla
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Spacecraft navigation
  • Spacecraft pose estimation
  • Autonomy
  • GNSS
  • Inertial sensors
  • Star trackers
  • Autonomous planetary landing
  • Computer vision
  • Artificial intelligence
  • Machine learning

Published Papers (10 papers)

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18 pages, 5123 KiB  
Article
Analysis on BDS-3 Autonomous Navigation Performance Based on the LEO Constellation and Regional Stations
by Baopeng Xu, Xing Su, Zhimin Liu, Mudan Su, Jianhui Cui, Qiang Li, Yan Xu, Zeyu Ma and Tao Geng
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(12), 3081; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15123081 - 13 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1041
Abstract
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is developing rapidly, and the related market applications and scientific research are increasing. Studies based on large low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations have become research hotspots. The global coverage of the LEO constellation can reduce the [...] Read more.
The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is developing rapidly, and the related market applications and scientific research are increasing. Studies based on large low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations have become research hotspots. The global coverage of the LEO constellation can reduce the dependence of navigation satellites on ground-monitoring stations and improve the precise orbit determination (POD) accuracy of navigation satellites. In this paper, we simulate various LEO satellite constellations (with 12, 30, and 60 satellites), along with ground stations’ observation data, to examine the impact of LEO satellites on the precision of the BeiDou-3 Global Navigation Satellite System (BDS-3) in terms of its POD accuracy. Using the simulated observation data of both LEO satellites and ground-monitoring stations, we analyze the integrated orbit determination for the LEO and BDS-3 satellites. The findings reveal that the 3D orbital accuracy of BDS-3 is 9.51 dm by using only seven ground-monitoring stations, and it is improved to a centimeter level after adding the LEO constellations. As the number of LEO constellation satellites increases, the impact on improving accuracy gradually diminishes. In terms of time synchronization accuracy in the BDS-3, compared to the results of clock offset using only ground stations, the addition of 12 LEO satellites resulted in an improvement of 49% for RMS1(root mean square) and 52% for RMS2 (standard deviation), the addition of 30 LEO satellites resulted in an improvement of 66% for RMS1 and 70% for RMS2, and the addition of 60 LEO satellites resulted in an improvement of 87% for RMS1 and 90% for RMS2. The integrated orbit determination of the LEO and BDS-3 satellites constellation greatly improves the accuracy of time synchronization. In addition, we also use simulated inter-satellite link (ISL) data to perform enhanced BDS-3 satellites POD and time synchronization experiments. The experiments showed that the orbit determination accuracy of the seven sta (seven stations) and ISL scheme is comparable to that of the seven sta and LEO12 scheme, and that the time synchronization accuracy of the seven sta and ISL scheme is slightly worse. The preliminary experiments showed that the LEO satellite could enhance the orbit determination accuracy of BDS-3 and obtain a higher time synchronization accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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20 pages, 5218 KiB  
Article
Lidar Pose Tracking of a Tumbling Spacecraft Using the Smoothed Normal Distribution Transform
by Léo Renaut, Heike Frei and Andreas Nüchter
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(9), 2286; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15092286 - 26 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1433
Abstract
Lidar sensors enable precise pose estimation of an uncooperative spacecraft in close range. In this context, the iterative closest point (ICP) is usually employed as a tracking method. However, when the size of the point clouds increases, the required computation time of the [...] Read more.
Lidar sensors enable precise pose estimation of an uncooperative spacecraft in close range. In this context, the iterative closest point (ICP) is usually employed as a tracking method. However, when the size of the point clouds increases, the required computation time of the ICP can become a limiting factor. The normal distribution transform (NDT) is an alternative algorithm which can be more efficient than the ICP, but suffers from robustness issues. In addition, lidar sensors are also subject to motion blur effects when tracking a spacecraft tumbling with a high angular velocity, leading to a loss of precision in the relative pose estimation. This work introduces a smoothed formulation of the NDT to improve the algorithm’s robustness while maintaining its efficiency. Additionally, two strategies are investigated to mitigate the effects of motion blur. The first consists in un-distorting the point cloud, while the second is a continuous-time formulation of the NDT. Hardware-in-the-loop tests at the European Proximity Operations Simulator demonstrate the capability of the proposed methods to precisely track an uncooperative spacecraft under realistic conditions within tens of milliseconds, even when the spacecraft tumbles with a significant angular rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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27 pages, 7002 KiB  
Article
Passive Electro-Optical Tracking of Resident Space Objects for Distributed Satellite Systems Autonomous Navigation
by Khaja Faisal Hussain, Kathiravan Thangavel, Alessandro Gardi and Roberto Sabatini
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(6), 1714; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15061714 - 22 Mar 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1980 | Correction
Abstract
Autonomous navigation (AN) and manoeuvring are increasingly important in distributed satellite systems (DSS) in order to avoid potential collisions with space debris and other resident space objects (RSO). In order to accomplish collision avoidance manoeuvres, tracking and characterization of RSO is crucial. At [...] Read more.
Autonomous navigation (AN) and manoeuvring are increasingly important in distributed satellite systems (DSS) in order to avoid potential collisions with space debris and other resident space objects (RSO). In order to accomplish collision avoidance manoeuvres, tracking and characterization of RSO is crucial. At present, RSO are tracked and catalogued using ground-based observations, but space-based space surveillance (SBSS) represents a valid alternative (or complementary asset) due to its ability to offer enhanced performances in terms of sensor resolution, tracking accuracy, and weather independence. This paper proposes a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm for DSS AN and manoeuvring, specifically addressing RSO tracking and collision avoidance requirements as an integral part of the overall system design. More specifically, a DSS architecture employing hyperspectral sensors for Earth observation is considered, and passive electro-optical sensors are used, in conjunction with suitable mathematical algorithms, to accomplish autonomous RSO tracking and classification. Simulation case studies are performed to investigate the tracking and system collision avoidance capabilities in both space-based and ground-based tracking scenarios. Results corroborate the effectiveness of the proposed AN technique and highlight its potential to supplement either conventional (ground-based) or SBSS tracking methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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32 pages, 38904 KiB  
Article
A Distributionally Robust Fusion Framework for Autonomous Multisensor Spacecraft Navigation during Entry Phase of Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing
by Natnael S. Zewge and Hyochoong Bang
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(4), 1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15041139 - 19 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1831
Abstract
A robust multisensor navigation filter design for the entry phase of next-generation Mars entry, descent, and landing (EDL) is presented. The entry phase is the longest and most uncertain portion of a Mars landing sequence. Navigation performance at this stage determines landing precision [...] Read more.
A robust multisensor navigation filter design for the entry phase of next-generation Mars entry, descent, and landing (EDL) is presented. The entry phase is the longest and most uncertain portion of a Mars landing sequence. Navigation performance at this stage determines landing precision at the end of the powered descent phase of EDL. In the present work, measurements from a ground-based radio beacon array, an inertial measurement unit (IMU), as well as an array of atmospheric and aerothermal sensors on the body of a Mars entry vehicle are fused using an M-estimation-based iterated extended Kalman filtering (MIEKF) framework. The multisensor approach enables an increased positioning accuracy as well as the estimation of parameters that are otherwise unobservable. Furthermore, owing to the proposed statistically robust filter formulation, states and parameters can be accurately estimated in the presence of non-Gaussian measurement noise. Deviations from normally distributed observation noise correspond to outlier events such as sensor faults or other sources of spurious sensor data such as interference. The proposed framework provides a significant reduction in estimation error at the parachute phase of EDL, thereby increasing the likelihood of a pinpoint landing at a chosen landing site. Six states and three parameters are estimated. The suggested method is compared to the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the unscented Kalman filter (UKF). Detailed simulation results show that the presented fusion architecture is able to meet future pinpoint planetary landing requirements in realistic sensor measurement scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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16 pages, 6548 KiB  
Article
Relative Pose Estimation of Non-Cooperative Space Targets Using a TOF Camera
by Dianqi Sun, Liang Hu, Huixian Duan and Haodong Pei
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(23), 6100; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14236100 - 01 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1551
Abstract
It is difficult to determine the accurate pose of non-cooperative space targets in on-orbit servicing (OOS). The visual camera is easily affected by the extreme light environment in space, and the scanning lidar will have motion distortion when the target moves at high [...] Read more.
It is difficult to determine the accurate pose of non-cooperative space targets in on-orbit servicing (OOS). The visual camera is easily affected by the extreme light environment in space, and the scanning lidar will have motion distortion when the target moves at high speed. Therefore, we proposed a non-cooperative target pose-estimation system combining a registration and a mapping algorithm using a TOF camera. We first introduce the projection model of the TOF camera and proposed a new calibration method. Then, we introduce the three modules of the proposed method: the TOF data preprocessing module, the registration module and the model mapping module. We assembled the experimental platform to conduct semi-physical experiments; the results showed that the proposed method has the smallest translation error 8 mm and Euler angle error 1° compared with other classical methods. The total time consumption is about 100 ms, and the pose tracking frequency can reach 10 Hz. We can conclude that the proposed pose-estimation scheme can achieve the high-precision pose estimation of non-cooperative targets and meet the requirements necessary for aerospace applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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39 pages, 9407 KiB  
Article
Monocular-Based Pose Estimation Based on Fiducial Markers for Space Robotic Capture Operations in GEO
by Roberto Opromolla, Claudio Vela, Alessia Nocerino and Carlo Lombardi
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(18), 4483; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14184483 - 08 Sep 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2052
Abstract
This paper tackles the problem of spacecraft relative navigation to support the reach and capture of a passively cooperative space target using a chaser platform equipped with a robotic arm in the frame of future operations such as On Orbit Servicing and Active [...] Read more.
This paper tackles the problem of spacecraft relative navigation to support the reach and capture of a passively cooperative space target using a chaser platform equipped with a robotic arm in the frame of future operations such as On Orbit Servicing and Active Debris Removal. Specifically, it presents a pose determination architecture based on monocular cameras to deal with a space target in GEO equipped with retro-reflective and black-and-white fiducial markers. The proposed architecture covers the entire processing pipeline, i.e., starting from markers’ detection and identification up to pose estimation by solving the Perspective-n-Points problem with a customized implementation of the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. It is designed to obtain relative position and attitude measurements of the target’s main body with respect to the chaser, as well as of the robotic arm’s end effector with respect to the selected grasping point. The design of the configuration of fiducial markers to be installed on the target’s approach face to support the pose determination task is also described. A performance assessment is carried out by means of numerical simulations using the Planet and Asteroid Natural Scene Generation Utility tool to produce realistic synthetic images of the target. The proposed approach robustness is evaluated against variable illumination scenarios and considering different uncertainty levels in the knowledge of initial conditions and camera intrinsic parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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26 pages, 3779 KiB  
Article
LCNS Positioning of a Lunar Surface Rover Using a DEM-Based Altitude Constraint
by Floor Thomas Melman, Paolo Zoccarato, Csilla Orgel, Richard Swinden, Pietro Giordano and Javier Ventura-Traveset
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 3942; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14163942 - 14 Aug 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2931
Abstract
With the renewed interest in lunar surface exploration, the European Space Agency envisions to stimulate the creation of lunar communications and navigation services (LCNS) to enable, among others, autonomous navigation capabilities for lunar rovers. As the number of satellites foreseen in such a [...] Read more.
With the renewed interest in lunar surface exploration, the European Space Agency envisions to stimulate the creation of lunar communications and navigation services (LCNS) to enable, among others, autonomous navigation capabilities for lunar rovers. As the number of satellites foreseen in such a service is much smaller compared to Earth-based global navigation satellite systems, different complementary technologies are pursued to improve the attainable navigation accuracy for lunar rovers. One way to improve the position accuracy provided by the LCNS satellites is to constrain their vertical position using a high resolution digital elevation model (DEM). This article presents the results of a variance covariance analysis of an extended Kalman filter implementation in which the LCNS ranging measurements are used together with the altitude provided by a DEM from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter instrument of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Assuming a realistic orbit determination and time synchronization accuracy of the LCNS satellites, the usage of a navigation-grade inertial measurement unit and an oven-controlled crystal oscillator, a 3-sigma position accuracy of less than 10 m can be obtained. Furthermore, the availability is substantially improved as the DEM-aided solution enables a position solution in case of only 3 visible satellites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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16 pages, 4156 KiB  
Article
Improved Single-Frequency Kinematic Orbit Determination Strategy of Small LEO Satellite with the Sun-Pointing Attitude Mode
by Wenju Fu, Lei Wang, Ruizhi Chen, Haitao Zhou, Tao Li and Yi Han
Remote Sens. 2021, 13(19), 4020; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13194020 - 08 Oct 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2202
Abstract
Kinematic orbit determination (KOD) of low earth orbit (LEO) satellites only using single-frequency global navigation satellite system (GNSS) data is a suitable solution for space applications demanding meter-level orbit precision. For some small LEO satellites with the sun-pointing attitude mode, the rotation of [...] Read more.
Kinematic orbit determination (KOD) of low earth orbit (LEO) satellites only using single-frequency global navigation satellite system (GNSS) data is a suitable solution for space applications demanding meter-level orbit precision. For some small LEO satellites with the sun-pointing attitude mode, the rotation of the GNSS antenna radiation pattern changes the observation noise characteristics. Since the rotation angle information of the antenna plane may not be available for most low-cost missions, the true elevation cannot be computed and a general elevation-dependent weighting model remains invalid for the onboard GNSS observations. Furthermore, the low-stability GNSS receiver clock oscillator of the LEO satellite at high speeds makes single-frequency cycle slip detection ineffective and difficult since the clock steering events occur frequently. In this study, we investigated the improved KOD strategy to improve the performance of orbit solution using single-frequency GPS and BeiDou navigation satellite system (BDS) observations collected from the Luojia-1A satellite. The weighting model based on exponential function and signal strength is proposed according to the analysis of satellite attitude impact, and a joint single-frequency detection algorithm of receiver clock jump and cycle slip is investigated as well. Based on the GPS/BDS-combined KOD results, it is demonstrated that the clock jump and cycle slip can be properly detected and observations can be effectively utilized with the proposed weighting model considering satellite attitude, which significantly improves the availability and accuracy of orbit solution. The number of available epochs is increased by 12.9% benefitting from this strategy. The orbital root mean square (RMS) precision improvements in the radial, along-track, and cross-track directions are 22.1%, 16.4%, and 6.5%, respectively. Combining BDS observations also contributes to orbit precision improvement, which reaches up to 28.8%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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1 pages, 160 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Hussain et al. Passive Electro-Optical Tracking of Resident Space Objects for Distributed Satellite Systems Autonomous Navigation. Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 1714
by Khaja Faisal Hussain, Kathiravan Thangaval, Alessandro Gardi and Roberto Sabatini
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(14), 3579; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15143579 - 17 Jul 2023
Viewed by 452
Abstract
There was an error in the original publication [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
12 pages, 1585 KiB  
Technical Note
Performance Evaluation of Multi-Epoch Double-Differenced Pseudorange Observation Method Using GNSS Ground Stations
by Takuji Ebinuma and Toshiki Tanaka
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4856; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194856 - 29 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1184
Abstract
Multi-epoch double-differenced pseudorange observation (MDPO) is a dual-satellite lunar navigation algorithm specially designed for a precursor mission, using a minimum number of lunar orbiting small satellites to realize a GNSS-like radio navigation system for the Moon. In this study, we evaluated the performance [...] Read more.
Multi-epoch double-differenced pseudorange observation (MDPO) is a dual-satellite lunar navigation algorithm specially designed for a precursor mission, using a minimum number of lunar orbiting small satellites to realize a GNSS-like radio navigation system for the Moon. In this study, we evaluated the performance of the MDPO algorithm by using real pseudorange measurements obtained from a pair of GNSS ground stations, one of which represented a lander, and the other a rover on the Moon. It was natural that the resulting positioning accuracy varied largely by satellite geometry, but the estimated error distributions of the double-differenced pseudorange observations were consistent and agreed with the predicted value. The results showed that the MDPO algorithm worked properly with the real GNSS observables and was capable of providing the expected navigation performance for future lunar exploration missions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autonomous Space Navigation)
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