Quaternary, Volume 8, Issue 3 (September 2025) – 11 articles

During the Pleistocene, the successive ice ages prompted the southward expansion of the “Mammoth Steppe” ecosystem, a prevalent habitat that supported species adapted to cold environments such as the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer. Previously, the earliest evidence for such cold-adapted species in the Iberian Peninsula dated back to Marine Isotope Stage 6 (MIS 6, ~191–123 ka). This paper reports the discovery of a reindeer (Rangifer) tooth from Unit GIII of the Galería site at the Atapuerca-Trinchera site complex, dated to MIS 8 (~300–243 ka). This find is significant as it represents not only the oldest evidence of glacial fauna in the Iberian Peninsula but also the southernmost occurrence of reindeer in Europe of this age. The presence of Rangifer at this latitude (42°21′ N) during MIS 8 suggests that the glacial conditions affected the Iberian fauna earlier and with greater intensity than previously understood. Over the subsequent climatic cycles, cold-adapted species spread further south, reaching Madrid (40°20′) during the penultimate glacial period and the province of Granada (37°01′) during the last glacial maximum. The coexistence of human fossils and lithic artefacts within Units GII and GIII at Galería indicates that early humans also inhabited these glacial environments at Atapuerca. This study elaborates on the morphological and archaeological significance of the reindeer fossil, emphasizing its role in understanding the biogeographical patterns of glacial fauna and the adaptability of Middle Pleistocene human populations. Full article

Recent archaeological discoveries across the Aegean, Cyprus, and western Anatolia have renewed interest in pre-Neolithic seafaring and early island colonization. However, the environmental contexts that support such early coastal occupations remain poorly understood, largely due to the submergence of Pleistocene shorelines following post-glacial sea-level rise. This study addresses this gap through an integrated geoarchaeological investigation of the pre-Neolithic site of Ouriakos on Lemnos Island, northeastern Aegean (Greece), dated to the mid-11th millennium BCE. By reconstructing both the terrestrial and submerged paleolandscapes of the site, we examine ecological conditions, resource availability, and sedimentary processes that shaped human activity and site preservation. Employing a multiscale methodological approach—combining bathymetric survey, geomorphological mapping, soil micromorphology, geochemical analysis, and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating—we present a comprehensive framework for identifying and interpreting early coastal settlements. Stratigraphic evidence reveals phases of fluvial, aeolian, and colluvial deposition associated with an alternating coastline. The core findings reveal that Ouriakos was established during a phase of environmental stability marked by paleosol development, indicating sustained human presence. By bridging terrestrial and marine data, this research contributes significantly to the understanding of human coastal mobility during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition. Full article

In this study, 14 palynological samples and nine AMS ¹⁴C dating samples were collected from two representative black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain to examine climate changes and their impacts on environmental evolution since the Holocene. The systematic identification, analysis, and research of palynological data reveal that the black soil profiles in the Xingkai Lake Plain can be categorized into the following three distinct palynological assemblage zones: the lower zone (11.7–7.5 ka BP) is characterized by Pinus-Laevgatomonoleti-Amaranthaceae-Artemisia, having a cold, dry climate; the middle zone (7.5–2.5 ka BP) features Quercus-Juglans-Polygonum-Cyperaceae, with a warm and humid climate; and the upper zone (2.5 ka BP to present) consists of Pinus-Quercus-Betula, indicating a cold and dry climate. Furthermore, field lithostratigraphic observations of the two black soil profiles suggest that late Pleistocene loessial clay serves as the parent material in this region. Quaternary geology, section lithology, palynology, and AMS ¹⁴C dating results indicate that a significant portion of black soil in the Xingkai Lake Plain was primarily formed during the Great Warm Period following the middle Holocene. These insights not only enhance our understanding of Holocene climate dynamics in Northeast China but also provide a substantial scientific foundation for further studies on related topics. Full article

The paper presents the results of a microfossil study of Holocene sediments in the Yana River flow zone in the southeastern part of the Laptev Sea. A rich diatom flora (242 species and intraspecific taxa, of which 177 species are freshwater) was revealed; additionally, five species of marine tintinnids (planktonic ciliates) and 15 species of freshwater testate amoebae (testacean) were discovered for the first time in the sea sediments. Three assemblages of microfossils reflecting the phases of environmental changes during the Holocene transgression are distinguished in the studied sediments of core LV83-32. Assemblage 1 was formed under terrestrial conditions (assemblage of diatoms Eunotia-Pinnularia and testacean Difflugia-Cylindrifflugia-Centropyxis), assemblage 2 in the zone of mixing of sea and fresh waters (assemblages of diatoms Cyclotella striata-Aulacoseira, Thalassiosira hyperborea-Chaetoceros and T. hyperborea-Aulacoseira, testacean Cyclopyxis kahli, tintinnids Tintinnopsis fimbriata), and assemblage 3 reflects modern conditions in the inner shelf of the Laptev Sea under the strong influence of river runoff (assemblage of diatoms T. hyperborea-Aulacoseira-M. arctica and tintinnids Tintinnopsis ventricosoides). Changes in the natural environment in the coastal part of the Laptev Sea shelf during the Holocene, established by microfossil assemblages, are confirmed by geochemical data. Full article

Obsidian was a key toolstone for the development of maritime lifeways in the western archipelago of southernmost South America. This area is a fragmented landscape where the major north–south movement of people along the Pacific was only possible by navigation because it is constrained by major biogeographic barriers. Two obsidian sources have been recorded, each one located on the extremes of the archipelago, and each has played a key role in the canoe-adapted societies that used them. As indicated by repeated inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analyses, obsidian from Chaitén Volcano to the north was distributed between 38°26′ S and 45°20′ S, and obsidian from Seno Otway to the south was distributed between 50° and 55° S, although it mainly occurred in sites close to the Strait of Magellan and within constrained time periods. This study explores the distribution of these two types of obsidians, their chronology, their frequencies in the archaeological record, the main artifact classes that are represented, and the technological processes in which they were involved. This examination indicates common aspects in the selection of high-quality toolstones for highly mobile maritime groups and discusses the different historical trajectories of two obsidians that appear decoupled across the Holocene. Full article

Late Pleistocene coastal deposits on the southeastern coast of Formentera (Es Ram–Es Estufadors) provide a high-resolution record of sea-level and climatic fluctuations associated with Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. Three distinct beach levels (Sef-1, Sef-2, Sef-3) were identified, corresponding to substages MIS 5e, 5c, and possibly 5a, based on sedimentological features, fossil assemblages, and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. The oldest beach level (Sef-1) is attributed to MIS 5e (ca. 128–116 ka) and is characterised by the widespread presence of thermophilic Senegalese fauna—including Thetystrombus latus, Conus ermineus, and Linatella caudata—which mark the onset of this interglacial phase and are associated with two peaks in relative sea-level highstand. A subsequent cooling event during MIS 5d is recorded by the development of thin palaeosols and the disappearance of these warm-water taxa. The second beach level (Sef-2) reflects renewed sea-level rise and warmer conditions during MIS 5c, with abundant macrofauna and red algae. The transition to MIS 5b (~97 ka) is marked by a significant sea-level drop (down to –60 m), cooler climate, and enhanced colluvial sedimentation linked to increased runoff and erosion. In total, 54 macrofaunal species were identified—16 from Sef-1 and 46 from Sef-2—highlighting ecological shifts across substages. These results improve our understanding of coastal response to sea-level oscillations and paleoenvironmental dynamics in the western Mediterranean during the Late Pleistocene. Full article

The Pécel loess–paleosol profile is a 25.72-metre-high well-preserved sequence in the northern part of Hungary. It was sampled every 4 cm for the purpose of sedimentological analysis and every 12 cm for the purpose of mollusc investigation, which are relatively high resolutions in loess investigation. Twenty samples were radiocarbon-dated from the L1 layer (top 8 m of the sequence). Subsequently, an age–depth model was constructed, from which an accumulation rate was calculated. Based on these radiocarbon and previous magnetic susceptibility data, the Pécel’s L1 layer is correlated with the Chinese Loess Plateau’s L1 layer and the MIS 2–4 stages. The malacological examinations show that the temperature was basically warm during the development, and there was open vegetation except on the S2, S1 and L1S1 paleosol layers, where significant forest expansion was shown. With the magnetic susceptibility and the malacological data, it is possible to track the changes in the conditions through the Chinese Loess Plateau’s timeline. Full article

For the first time, the numerous scattered data on birds (wild and domestic) have been collected based on their medieval bone remains discovered on the modern territory of the Republic of Bulgaria. The collected information is about a total of 37 medieval settlements from the time of the First and Second Bulgarian Empires. Among the settlements studied are both the two medieval Bulgarian capitals (Pliska and Veliki Preslav), as well as other cities, smaller settlements, military fortresses, monasteries, and inhabited caves. The data refer to a total of 48 species of wild birds and 6 forms of domestic birds of 11 avian orders: Accipitriformes, Anseriformes, Ciconiiformes, Columbiformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Otidiformes, Passeriformes, Pelecaniformes, and Strigiformes. The established composition of wild birds amounts to over one tenth (to 11.5%) of the modern avifauna in the country. Five of the established species (10.4%) have disappeared from the modern nesting avifauna of the country—the bearded vulture, the great bustard, the little bustard, the gray crane, and the saker falcon (the latter two species have reappeared as nesters in the past few years). First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018): Investigated settlements—22. Period covered—five centuries (7th to 11th c.). Found in total: at least 44 species/forms of birds, of which 39 species of wild birds and 5 forms of poultry. Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396): Investigated settlements—15. Period covered—3 centuries (12th to 14th c.). Found in total: at least 39 species/forms of birds, of which 33 species of wild birds and 6 forms of poultry. The groups of raptors, water, woodland, openland, synanthropic and domestic birds were analyzed separately. The conclusion was made that during the two periods of the Middle Ages, birds had an important role in the material and spiritual life of the population of the Bulgarian lands. Birds were mainly used for food (domestic birds), although some were objects of hunting. No traces of processing were found on the bones. Birds were subjects of works of applied and monumental art. Their images decorated jewelry, tableware, walls of buildings and other structures. Full article

The longstanding debate over early hominin subsistence strategies, particularly the hunting-versus-scavenging hypothesis, as well as discussions regarding the functionality of Oldowan sites, has been primarily centered on the archeological and paleoanthropological record of Olduvai Gorge. Historically, FLK Zinj has been at the core of these debates, serving as a principal empirical reference due to the prevailing assumption that most other Bed I sites at Olduvai represented non-anthropogenic accumulations However, recent discoveries have significantly reshaped this perspective. Newly identified early sites, including PTK, DS, and AGS, situated within the paleolandscape and thin stratigraphic context of FLK Zinj, provide crucial new anthropogenic datasets. These sites offer additional dimensions to the study of early hominin behavior, facilitating a more nuanced reconstruction of their adaptive strategies in this paleoenvironment. Furthermore, methodological advancements in recent years—including controlled experimental and actualistic studies, sophisticated statistical modeling, and the integration of machine learning algorithms—have greatly enhanced the analytical frameworks available for investigating early hominin behavior. These innovations have refined the ability to formulate and test hypotheses within a rigorous scientific paradigm, significantly improving the resolution of archeological and taphonomic interpretations. This study presents an in-depth taphonomic analysis of the faunal assemblage from level 22A at DS, a Bed I site at Olduvai Gorge dated to approximately 1.84 Ma. The assemblage exhibits exceptional preservation, enabling detailed assessments of skeletal part representation, fragmentation patterns, and surface modifications. By combining traditional taphonomic methodologies with state-of-the-art AI-driven bone surface modification (BSM) analyses, this research contributes novel insights into the interactions between early hominins and carnivores, elucidating the complex ecological dynamics of an Early Pleistocene African paleolandscape. Full article

Debates about prehistoric Amazonian subsistence, social organization, and landscape use have ranged from ethnographically based characterizations of relatively mobile foragers to archaeological evidence that suggests sedentary agriculturalists. Recently, great antiquity of settled agriculture and complex social organization has been asserted for portions of the northern Amazon. However, the role of theory and inferences drawn from habitat diversity have receded in these debates. This paper synthesizes the current literature regarding long-term evolutionary changes in Amazon Basin societies with an archaeological case study from mound-building sites of Guyana and ethnoarchaeological data from Venezuelan forager–gardeners to develop a hypothesis regarding the critical role of habitat, aquatic resources, and seasonality in the transition from intensified foraging to cultivation. Full article

The Eemian interglacial (~130–116 ka) is a period characterized by a significantly warmer climate than the pre-industrial era, providing a valuable opportunity to study natural climate variability and its implications for the future. We studied the Eemian climate in Europe by applying an interactive downscaling to our Earth system model (iLOVECLIM) to increase its horizontal atmospheric resolution from 5.56° to 0.25° latitude-longitude. A transient simulation was conducted for both the standard version of the model and with an interactive downscaling applied for the Eemian (127–116 ka). Our simulations suggest that the magnitude of temperature and precipitation varied across different regions of Europe, with some areas experiencing more pronounced warming and precipitation changes than others. The latitudinal pattern in our simulation during the Eemian shows that the warming in Europe was stronger at high latitudes than at mid-latitudes. Relative to the pre-industrial climate, our downscaling scheme simulates at 127 ka higher temperatures between 3–4 °C in the northern part of Europe and higher precipitation values between 150–300 mm/yr. Our results indicate that, in comparison to the standard model, the downscaled simulations offer spatial variability that is more in line with proxy-based reconstructions and other climate models. Full article