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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 December 2022) | Viewed by 33563

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Jean-Claude Assaf

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering, Lebanese University (ULFG) & Saint Joseph University (ESIB), Beirut, Lebanon
Interests: process design; process modeling; process simulation; process optimization; process control; refining processes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation, and Optimization constitute the core of the activity of petrochemical engineers, process controller engineers, industrial engineers, energy engineers, and researchers in the oil and gas field.

Petroleum is considered the black gold of the earth, but this treasure can’t be utilized without the usage of innovative and up-to-date technologies for its recovery and conversion. To the best of our knowledge, the crude oil extracted from wells is not in a pure form and is mainly composed of oil, gas, and water. Thus, the need for an oil processing plant to separate it from other fluids and impurities in an environmentally friendly manner is crucial. Therefore, these remaining contaminants can be highly problematic during oil transportation or usage, hence novel optimized methods are needed to improve oil processing.

Nevertheless, natural gas is nowadays considered the main bond between existing fossil fuels and future resources. Natural gas is primarily composed of methane but may include variable amounts of other higher alkanes. Besides, natural gas may contain low amounts of chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and helium. Natural gas processing is designed to refine the raw gas by eliminating impurities, thus producing a dry natural gas compliant to the pipeline gas quality specifications. Natural gas processing plants can remove several types of contaminants such as water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, mercury, and other hydrocarbons. The application and improvement of different operations including sweetening and dehydration make the raw natural gas ready for usage or conversion.

The conversion of oil and gas is mainly conducted through refineries and chemical processing plants. Hence, oil and gas refining leads through the combination of several physicals, chemical, and thermodynamical processes to the formation of many valuable products including fuels, materials, chemicals, and/or heat and power. To note that even the polluting emissions of the refineries that can be formed at any stage of the oil or gas conversion process have a certain economic value and can be further processed or sold. Moreover, the impurities removed during the oil and gas processing step are not always considered as waste but instead, they are considered as potential by-products of this industry. A green process is usually what refineries aim for, thus by succedding in converting process waste an economic and environmental benefit will take place.

This Special Issue explores the modeling, control, simulation, and optimization of new and revamped petrochemical processes using proven software. Thus, it offers novel illustrative examples, prospective applications, and solutions to improve these processes. This issue aims to combine theoretical principles with examples modeled by commonly-used simulation software (Aspen Plus, Aspen Hysys, Pro/II, Prosim, CHEMCAD, Scilab, Matlab, Modelica, DWSIM, Python, COCO, and others) employing steady-state or dynamic process simulation. Furthermore, applying numerical methods and optimization at both the theoretical and practical levels is within the scope of this issue. Original research papers and reviews covering a wide range of topics in the processing and conversion of oil and gas are considered for publication in this special issue.

Topics include, but are not limited to applications in the following areas:

Oil and gas process design and equipment sizing
Petrochemical process control
Numerical simulation, modeling, and optimization of petrochemical processes
Oil and gas processing
Oil and gas refining
Fuel and biofuel processing and production
Energy-saving, economic evaluation, and material integration in petrochemical processes
Optimization of petrochemical process capacity and operating conditions
Monitoring safety and operational issues in petrochemical plants
Energy from combustion and power generation
Hydrogen energy production and utilization
Industrial waste recovery and utilization
Handling of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions including carbon dioxide
Waste derived fuels (WDF) from petrochemical industries
Advanced separation techniques for petrochemical industries
Performance comparison, evaluation, and optimization of petrochemical software tools

Dr. Jean-Claude Assaf
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

oil and gas process design and equipment sizing
petrochemical process control
numerical simulation, modeling, and optimization of petrochemical processes
oil and gas processing
oil and gas refining
fuel and biofuel processing and production
energy-saving, economic evaluation, and material integration in petrochemical processes
optimization of petrochemical process capacity and operating conditions
monitoring safety and operational issues in petrochemical plants
energy from combustion and power generation
hydrogen energy production and utilization
industrial waste recovery and utilization
handling of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions including carbon dioxide
waste derived fuels (WDF) from petrochemical industries
advanced separation techniques for petrochemical industries
performance comparison, evaluation, and optimization of petrochemical software tools

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

4 pages, 184 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on “Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization”

by Jean Claude Assaf and Marina Al Daccache

Processes 2023, 11(2), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11020388 - 27 Jan 2023

Viewed by 824

Abstract

Petroleum is considered the black gold of the earth, but this treasure cannot be utilized without the usage of innovative and advanced technologies for its recovery and conversion [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

18 pages, 3495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Intensified Green Process for the Coproduction of DMC and DMO by the Oxidative Carbonylation of Methanol

by Abdulrahman A. Al-Rabiah, Abdulaziz M. Almutlaq, Omar S. Bashth, Taher M. Alyasser, Fayez A. Alshehri, Mohammed S. Alofai and Abdulelah S. Alshehri

Processes 2022, 10(10), 2094; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102094 - 16 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is an eco-friendly and sustainable compound with widespread industrial applications. Various extensive routes have been exploited in the chemical industry to produce DMC. However, these routes have several environmental and energy drawbacks. In this study, a promising novel industrial scheme for the synthesis of DMC via the oxidative carbonylation of vaporized methanol with dimethyl oxalate (DMO) as a byproduct is investigated. A methanol conversion of 81.86% and a DMC selectivity of 83.47% were achieved using an isothermal fixed-bed reactor at 130 °C. The DMC is withdrawn at a purity of >99 mol% via pressure-swing azeotropic distillations. Heat integration was performed to optimize energy consumption, reducing the energy requirements by 28%. An economic evaluation was performed for estimating the profitability via cash-flow diagrams, predicting a payback period of 3.7 years. The proposed green process exhibits several benefits, including high profitability and being environmentally friendly. It also eliminates the use or production of hazardous materials, and it enhances safety characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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14 pages, 2931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Development for Methyl Isobutyl Ketone Production Using the Low-Pressure One-Step Gas-Phase Selective Hydrogenation of Acetone

by Abdulrahman A. Al-Rabiah, Raed R. Alkathiri and Abdulaziz A. Bagabas

Processes 2022, 10(10), 1992; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101992 - 02 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5016

Abstract

Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) is a highly valuable product in the chemical industry. It is widely used as an extracting agent for heavy metals, antibiotics, and lubricating oils. Generally, MIBK can be produced by three-step and one-step liquid-phase methods. These methods are expensive and energy-demanding due to the high pressure and low conversion of acetone. A novel nano-Pd/nano-ZnCr₂O₄ catalyst was developed to produce MIBK with high conversion and selectivity of 77.3% and 72.1%, respectively, at 350 °C and ambient pressure, eliminating the need for high pressure in conventional MIBK processes. This study is the first that proposes a newly developed process of methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) production using the low-pressure one-step gas-phase selective hydrogenation of acetone. In this work, a novel process flow diagram has been developed for the production of MIBK using the developed nano-catalyst. The process was heat integrated, resulting in a 26% and a 19.5% reduction in the heating and cooling utilities, respectively, leading to a 12.6% reduction in the total energy demand. An economic analysis was performed to determine the economic feasibility of the developed process, which shows that the process is highly profitable, in which it reduced both the capital and operating costs of MIBK synthesis and showed a return on investment (ROI) of 29.6% with a payback period of 2.2 years. It was found that the ROI could be increased by 18% when the reactor temperature is increased to 350 °C. In addition, the economic sensitivity analysis showed that the process is highly sensitive to product prices and least sensitive to utility prices, which is due to the versatility of the process that requires only a low amount of energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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Graphical abstract

20 pages, 7553 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Novel Process for Butyl Acetate Production via Membrane Reactor: A Comparative Study with the Conventional and Reactive Distillation Processes

by Abdulrahman A. Al-Rabiah, Abdullah E. Alqahtani, Rayan K. Al Darwish and Abdulaziz S. Bin Naqyah

Processes 2022, 10(9), 1801; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10091801 - 07 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5999

Abstract

Butyl acetate (BuAc) is widely used as a solvent in many applications, mainly in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The conventional process for BuAc production is both capital and energy intensive. The purification process involves the separation of BuAc from the azeotropic mixture of water and n-butanol, which is difficult to accomplish using a simple distillation unit. In this study, a membrane reactor (MR) for BuAc production via the esterification of n-butanol was investigated. The MR using the Amberlyst-15 catalyst was modeled and validated with previously reported experimental data, and a good agreement was achieved. The ultimate conversion of n-butanol using the MR was 92.0%, compared to 69.8% for the conventional reactor. This study is the first to propose an intensified MR-based process for butyl acetate production. The MR-based process was developed and rigorously simulated using Aspen Plus for an annual plant capacity of 92,500 metric tons of BuAc. The MR-based process is environmentally friendly regarding CO₂ emissions, with a reduction of 80% compared to the conventional process. The economic analysis of the MR-based process shows a payback period of 2.7 years and a return on investment (ROI) of 23.1%. The MR-based process for BuAc production is a promising technology that provides similar key benefits as compared to the reactive distillation (RD) process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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Graphical abstract

12 pages, 6012 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Discharge Process and Mechanism of Anti-Corrosion Pill Particles in the Oil and Gas Field Wellbore Casing Annulus Based on the Discrete Element Method

by Dongtao Liu, Yuliang Lu, Haichun Lin, Chunshang Qiao, Jiming Song, Shengqian Chen, Zhenhe Yao, Kezheng Du and Yajun Yu

Processes 2022, 10(9), 1737; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10091737 - 01 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1018

Abstract

This research studies the discharge process and its mechanism using the discrete element method (DEM) with self-developed annular corrosion pill particles and the discharge device as an example in order to optimize the oil and gas field wellbore casing annular corrosion process. The object of study was chosen from four different grid numbers and four different grid widths, and EDEM software was utilized to simulate and assess the pill particle discharge process based on preliminary experimental research. Under five different pill wheel rotation speeds, the effects of the grid number and grid width on the filling amount, filling density, discharge variation coefficient, and compressive force of pill particles were investigated from macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints. The findings reveal that the grid number, grid width, and rotation speed all have a significant impact on pill filling and discharge performance. As a result, the discharge wheel’s structure and operating characteristics were optimized. The discharge wheel performs best when the grid number is 8, the grid width is 75 mm, and the rotation speed is 15 rpm; the pill filling density is 692.26 kg/m³, the discharge variation coefficient is 0.022, and the maximum compressive force is 188 N. This study establishes the groundwork for enhancing wellbore integrity management in oil and gas fields by providing a reference for the optimal design of wellbore casing annular corrosion prevention devices in oil and gas fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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26 pages, 1386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pipeline Two-Phase Flow Pressure Drop Algorithm for Multiple Inclinations

by Andrés Cepeda-Vega, Rafael Amaya-Gómez, Miguel Asuaje, Carlos Torres, Carlos Valencia and Nicolás Ratkovich

Processes 2022, 10(5), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10051009 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2588

Abstract

A Generalized Additive Model (GAM) is proposed to predict the pressure drop in a gas–liquid two-phase flow at horizontal, vertical, and inclined pipes based on 21 different dimensionless numbers. It is fitted from 4605 points, considering a fluid pattern classification as Annular, Bubbly, Intermittent, and Segregated. The GAM non-parametric method reached high prediction capacity and allowed a great degree of interpretability (i.e., it helped to visualize and test statistical inference), considering that each predictor’s marginal effects could be described, unlike in other Machine Learning (ML) methods. The prediction capacity of the GAM model for the pressure gradient obtained an adjusted

R^{2}

and a mean relative error of 99.1% and 12.93%, respectively. This capacity is maintained even when ignoring Bubbly flow in the training sample. A regularization technique to filter some variables was used, but most of the predictors must maintain the model’s high predictive ability. For example, dimensionless numbers such as the Reynolds, Froude, and Weber numbers show p-values of less than 0.01% to explain the pressure gradient in the different flow patterns. The model performs adequately on 500 randomly sampled data points not used to fit the model with an error lower than 15%. The variable importance for the model and the relationship with the pressure gradient is evaluated based on the obtained splines and p-values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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15 pages, 1147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Classification of Shale Gas Gathering and Transportation Pipelines Running through High Consequence Areas

by Kun Chen, Nan Shi, Zhenjie Lei, Xu Chen, Wei Qin, Xin Wei and Shanghao Liu

Processes 2022, 10(5), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10050923 - 06 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1477

Abstract

Shale gas gathering and transportation pipeline poses significant risk due to special geographical conditions and different climatic conditions in high consequence areas such as Sichuan and Chongqing. The risks become critical as gas pipelines run through high consequence areas such as hospital, market, and scenic areas. This study presents a risk classification method for the pipelines running through high consequence areas. The proposed method considers different failure scenarios including third-party damage, corrosion, design and construction defects, mis-operation, and natural disasters. The method uses subjective and objective data from different sources. To minimize the subjectivity and data uncertainty, an improved fuzzy analytic hierarchy process was used to process data. The estimated risk is used to classify different risk zones. After the failure of shale gas pipelines in HCAs, in order to reduce the adverse impact of emergencies, personnel should immediately organize an evacuation to a safe area, focusing on the diagnosis and analysis of risk factors that are more likely to lead to pipeline leakage. The developed classes are verified using field data. The study observes that risk levels classified using the proposed method provide realistic assessments of hazard zoning. Risk zoning will help develop effective risk management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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18 pages, 635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bubble Identification in the Emerging Economy Fuel Price Series: Evidence from Generalized Sup Augmented Dickey–Fuller Test

by Mumtaz Ahmed, Muhammad Irfan, Abdelrhman Meero, Maryam Tariq, Ubaldo Comite, Abdul Aziz Abdul Rahman, Muhammad Safdar Sial and Stefan B. Gunnlaugsson

Processes 2022, 10(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010065 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3202

Abstract

In the recent past, the world in general and Pakistan in particular faced a drastic fuel price change, affecting the economic productivity of the country. This has drawn the attention of empirical researchers to analyze the abrupt change in fuel prices. This study takes a lead and investigates for the first time, in the literature related to Pakistan, the presence of multiple fuel price bubbles, with the purpose of knowing if the price driver is due to demand or it is exuberant consumer behavior that prevails and contributes to a sudden boom in fuel price series. The empirical analysis is performed through a recently proposed state-of-the-art generalized sup ADF (GSADF) approach on six commonly used fuel price series, namely, LDO (light diesel oil), HSD (high-speed diesel), petrol, natural gas, kerosene, and MS (motor spirit). The bubble analysis for each of the six fuel price series is based on monthly data from July 2005 to August 2020. The findings provide evidence of the existence of multiple bubbles in all series considered. Specifically, four bubbles are detected in each of the kerosene and natural gas price series, whereas three bubbles are noted in each of the HSD, LDO, petrol and MS price series. The maximum duration of occurrence of bubbles is of 12 months for kerosene. The date-stamping of the bubbles shows that the financial crisis of 2008 contributed to the emergence of bubbles that pushed oil prices upward and caused a depreciation in the national currency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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9 pages, 2156 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Upgrading of Wash Oil through Reduction of Nitrogen-Containing Compounds

by Su Jin Kim

Processes 2021, 9(11), 1869; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9111869 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1226

Abstract

As part of improving the quality of wash oil, the reduction of three kinds of nitrogen-containing compounds (NCs), including quinoline (QU), iso-quinoline (IQU), and indole (IN), found in wash oil was examined by liquid–liquid equilibrium extraction. The wash oil and an aqueous solution of formamide were used as the raw material and the solvent, respectively. Increasing the volume fraction of water in the solvent in the initial state (y_w,0) resulted in a decrease in the distribution coefficients of each NC, while inversely, the selectivity of each NC in reference to 2-methylnaphthalene increased. The selectivity ranges of QU, IQU and IN at y_w,0 = 0.05~0.3 were 19~57, 19~56 and 50~79, respectively. Through five stages of equilibrium extraction performed under the condition of y_w,0 = 0.05, the concentrations of QU and IQU contained in the raffinate oil recovered at the fifth stage were reduced by about 69% and 65% compared to those contained in the wash oil. The concentration of IN in particular, a useful compound in the chemical industry, which is a raw material for pharmaceuticals, dyes, and fragrances, was reduced by 93.4% through a five-stage extraction operation. The formamide extraction method of this study was highly efficient in reducing the NC present in the wash oil, showing the feasibility of this method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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21 pages, 12759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Jet Characteristics and Pulse Mechanism of Self-Excited Oscillating Pulsed Jet Nozzle

by Si Zhang, Biwei Fu and Lin Sun

Processes 2021, 9(8), 1423; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081423 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

Self-excited oscillation pulse jet technology is widely used to clean sediment from oil storage tanks. Its successful application is dependent on jet performance. As the cleaning requirements of the oil industry increase, it is necessary to optimise the structure of self-excited oscillation pulsed jet nozzles (SOPJNs) to optimise cleaning and energy efficiencies. In this study, the jet performance of a SOPJN is modelled and analysed based on computational fluid dynamics with consideration of a large eddy simulation and homogeneous cavitation. The modelling results are highly consistent with experimental results. The effects of the SOPJN’s inlet diameter, cavity diameter, cavity length, wall reflection angle, and inlet pressure on the jet’s peak velocity, oscillation frequency, and cavitation number were analysed. The results show that the oscillation frequency decreases with the increase of the inlet diameter d₁, cavity diameter D, cavity length L and reflection angle of wall α. Optimisation of the SOPJN inlet diameter, cavity length, and wall reflection angle produced a jet with a high peak velocity and strong cavitation. The optimal nozzle cavity diameter strengthens cavitation, while the peak velocity fluctuates as the cavity diameter increases. The peak velocity increases with the inlet pressure, while the increasing rate of the peak velocity decreases. The results of this study can be used in the design and optimisation of similar nozzle structures for improved pulse jet cleaning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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15 pages, 2956 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biolubricant Production through Double Transesterification: Reactor Design for the Implementation of a Biorefinery Based on Rapeseed

by José María Encinar, Sergio Nogales-Delgado and Antonio Pinilla

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1224; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071224 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3419

Abstract

The production and use of biolubricants as replacements for mineral lubricants align with the promotion of sustainable development goals, contributing to the sustainable economic growth of developing countries as well as the preservation of the environment. The implementation of biorefineries (where the production of biolubricants through transesterification could play an important role) is becoming important for these purposes, using natural feedstocks such as rapeseed, which is an interesting crop that can adapt to different climates under extreme weather conditions. The aim of this research work was to study the design of a reactor to produce rapeseed biolubricant through double transesterification of the corresponding vegetable oil. Thus, the kinetics to design a reactor was studied, sizing it according to the properties of the biolubricant and the demand in Spain. As a result, a SAE 10W30 biolubricant was obtained, which was suitable for Diesel engines. A batch reactor was selected for the production of this biolubricant at a national level, with a pseudo-first reaction order and a reactor volume of 9.66 m³. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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13 pages, 1854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability of a Viscous Liquid Jet in a Coaxial Twisting Compressible Airflow

by Li-Mei Guo, Ming Lü and Zhi Ning

Processes 2021, 9(6), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9060918 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2118

Abstract

Based on the linear stability analysis, a mathematical model for the stability of a viscous liquid jet in a coaxial twisting compressible airflow has been developed. It takes into account the twist and compressibility of the surrounding airflow, the viscosity of the liquid jet, and the cavitation bubbles within the liquid jet. Then, the effects of aerodynamics caused by the gas–liquid velocity difference on the jet stability are analyzed. The results show that under the airflow ejecting effect, the jet instability decreases first and then increases with the increase of the airflow axial velocity. When the gas–liquid velocity ratio A = 1, the jet is the most stable. When the gas–liquid velocity ratio A > 2, this is meaningful for the jet breakup compared with A = 0 (no air axial velocity). When the surrounding airflow swirls, the airflow rotation strength E will change the jet dominant mode. E has a stabilizing effect on the liquid jet under the axisymmetric mode, while E is conducive to jet instability under the asymmetry mode. The maximum disturbance growth rate of the liquid jet also decreases first and then increases with the increase of E. The liquid jet is the most stable when E = 0.65, and the jet starts to become more easier to breakup when E = 0.8425 compared with E = 0 (no swirling air). When the surrounding airflow twists (air moves in both axial and circumferential directions), given the axial velocity to change the circumferential velocity of the surrounding airflow, it is not conducive to the jet breakup, regardless of the axisymmetric disturbance or asymmetry disturbance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Conversion of Oil and Gas: Modeling, Control, Simulation and Optimization)

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