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Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 May 2025 | Viewed by 4377

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Pilar Bernal-Ortega

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Guest Editor

Elastomer Technology & Engineering, Department of Mechanics of Solids, Surfaces & Systems (MS3), Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands
Interests: rubber; tires; silica; silane; sustainability; resins; fillers; crosslink density; bio-based materials

Prof. Dr. Anke Blume

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Guest Editor

Dr. Rafał Anyszka

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Guest Editor

Elastomer Technology & Engineering, Department of Mechanics of Solids, Surfaces & Systems (MS3), Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Drienerlolaan 5, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands
Interests: rubber; tires; silica; silane; silica modification; elastomer; blends; flammability; composites

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Elastomers are extremely important materials that are used in many different applications such as tires, hoses, seals, or damping systems. In recent years, one of the main focuses of the rubber industry has been to improve the sustainability of rubber products without a deterioration of their performance. There are different approaches to reducing the environmental impact of rubber products. Some approaches are focused on improving the performance of the elastomers in order to increase the durability and longevity of the end products and generate less waste, whereas some concentrate on the use of new, naturally sourced, materials that can have a lower impact on the environment. Others have their main goal of improving the recyclability of rubber products to be able to reuse the generated waste. All of these approaches bring new knowledge and innovation into elastomer performance that contribute to the final goal of making rubber more sustainable.

Therefore, this Special Issue is looking for papers that are studying new systems to improve rubber performance in order to design compounds with advanced properties or specific functionalities, improve recyclability, and increase the use of bio-based materials, all of which provide new insights into how to make rubber more sustainable.

Dr. Pilar Bernal-Ortega
Prof. Dr. Anke Blume
Dr. Rafał Anyszka
Guest Editors

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Keywords

rubber
elastomer
sustainability
performance
recycling
bio-based
fillers
waste
cross-linking
additives
testing

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 2980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Proteins on the Network Formation and Degradation of Peroxide Cross-Linked Natural Rubber Elucidated by Time-Domain NMR

by Adun Nimpaiboon, Antonio González-Jiménez, Roberto Pérez-Aparicio, Fernando Martín-Salamanca, Zenen Zepeda-Rodríguez, Juan López-Valentín and Jitladda Sakdapipanich

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081063 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 207

Abstract

The importance of sustainable polymers has increased greatly in the last years since most polymers are derived from non-renewable sources. Sustainable polymers (i.e., biopolymers) such as natural rubber (NR) are proposed as a solution for this concern. A comparative study between NR and deproteinized NR (DPNR) was carried out to elucidate the role of proteins on the network formation and degradation of peroxide cross-linked NR using time-domain NMR experiments. The ¹H multiple-quantum (MQ) NMR experiments provided information on the cross-link density and its spatial distribution, while the actual fraction of non-coupled network defects was obtained by exploiting the Hahn echo approach measured on swollen samples. The results showed that proteins influenced the network formation during the vulcanization process of NR, leading to a higher number of non-elastic network defects and promoting the creation of additional cross-links with a broader spatial distribution. The formation of network heterogeneities in different length scales deeply influences the mechanical properties of NR samples. On the other hand, the proteins showed a pro-oxidant activity on the degradation behavior by accelerating the degradation process of peroxide cross-linked NR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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20 pages, 5213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sulfur and Peroxide Cross-Linking of Lignosulfonate-Filled Compounds Based on Acrylonitrile–Butadiene Rubber and Styrene–Butadiene Rubber

by Ján Kruželák, Michaela Džuganová, Andrea Kvasničáková, Ján Hronkovič, Jozef Preťo, Ivan Chodák and Ivan Hudec

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070950 - 31 Mar 2025

Viewed by 266

Abstract

Calcium lignosulfonate was incorporated into rubber compounds based on styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) and acrylonitrile–butadiene rubber (NBR) in amounts ranging from 10 to 60 phr. A sulfur-based curing system and a peroxide curing system consisting of dicumyl peroxide in combination with methacrylic acid zinc salt were used for cross-linking of the compounds. The aim of the work was to investigate the influence of lignosulfonate and curing system composition of the cross-linking process, morphology, physical–mechanical and dynamic–mechanical characteristics of the composites. The achieved results showed that peroxide cured composites demonstrated higher cross-link density, which was found not to be influenced by the content of lignosulfonate. The cross-link density of sulfur-cured composites was lower and showed a decreasing tendency with increasing amounts of the biopolymer. A lower cross-linking degree was reflected in a higher elongation at break and higher increase in the elongation at break of the corresponding composites. On the other hand, peroxide-cured composites exhibited a higher modulus M100 and higher hardness. The microscopic analysis revealed that co-agent in peroxide vulcanization contributed to the improvement of adhesion between the biopolymer and the rubber resulting in higher tensile strength of the equivalent composites. The higher cross-link density of peroxide-cured composites caused higher restriction of the chain segments’ mobility, due to which these composites exhibited a higher glass transition temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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12 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concentrated Pre-Vulcanized Natural Rubber Latex Without Additives for Fabricating High Mechanical Performance Rubber Specimens via Direct Ink Write 3D Printing

by Lin Liu, Jizhen Zhang, Zirong Luo, Na Kong, Xu Zhao, Xu Ji, Jihua Li, Shenbo Huang, Pengfei Zhao, Shuang Li, Yanqiu Shao and Jinlong Tao

Polymers 2025, 17(3), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17030351 - 28 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1335

Abstract

Direct ink writing (DIW) is an economical, straightforward, and relatively energy-efficient 3D printing technique that has been used in various domains. However, the utilization of rubber latex for DIW remains limited due to its high fluidity and inadequate support, which makes it challenging to meet the required ink rheological characteristics for DIW. In this study, a concentrated pre-vulcanized natural rubber latex (CPNRL) ink with a high solid content of 73% without additives is developed for DIW 3D printing. The CPNRL ink is concentrated using superabsorbent polymer (SAP) beads, which demonstrates good colloidal stability, favorable rheological properties, and superior printability. The impact of printing angles on the mechanical properties of the rubber specimens based on the CPNRL-73 ink is explored in detail, wherein the tensile strength of the specimen printed at a 90° angle reaches an impressive 26 MPa and a strain of approximately 800%, which surpasses the majority of 3D-printed rubber latex specimens. Additionally, the CPNRL ink can be used to print a wide range of intricate shapes, demonstrating its advantages in excellent formability. The preparation of 3D printable ink using the absorption method will expand the application of elastomers in fields such as customized flexible sensing and personalized rubber products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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16 pages, 12395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Oil Palm Trunk Biochar and Palm Oil as Environmentally Friendly Sustainable Additives in Green Natural Rubber Composites

by Narong Chueangchayaphan, Manop Tarasin, Wimonwan Phonjon and Wannarat Chueangchayaphan

Polymers 2025, 17(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17020223 - 17 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1217

Abstract

This research examines the possibility of palm oil and oil palm trunk biochar (OPTB) from pyrolysis effectively serving as alternative processing oils and fillers, substituting petroleum-based counterparts in natural rubber (NR) composites. Chemical, elemental, surface and morphological analyses were used to characterize both carbon black (CB) and OPTB, by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) gas porosimetry, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The influences of OPTB contents from 0 to 100 parts per hundred rubber (phr) on thermal, dielectric, dynamic mechanical, and cure characteristics, and the key mechanical properties of particulate NR-composites were investigated. OPTB enhanced the characteristics of the composites, as demonstrated by a rise in dielectric constant, thermal stability, storage modulus, glass transition temperature (T_g), hardness and modulus at 300% elongation, along with a decrease in the loss tangent (tan δ). Tear strength exhibited an increase with OPTB content up to a specific threshold, whereas tensile strength and elongation at break declined. This implies a compromise between the various mechanical properties when incorporating OPTB as a filler. This work supports the potential application of OPTB as a renewable substitute for CB in the rubber industry, particularly in tire production and other industrial rubber applications, which would also bring environmental, sustainability, and economic benefits for the palm oil-related industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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14 pages, 7877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Mechanical and Antibacterial Performance of Tire Waste/Epoxidized Natural Rubber Blends Using Modified Zinc Oxide–Silica

by Napasorn Kingkohyao, Tanit Boonsiri, Jobish Johns, Raymond Lee Nip and Yeampon Nakaramontri

Polymers 2025, 17(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010109 - 3 Jan 2025

Viewed by 961

Abstract

This study investigates the synergistic effects of incorporating modified zinc oxide–silica (ZnO-SiO₂) into tire waste (TW) and epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) blends, with a focus on crosslinking dynamics, mechanical reinforcement, and antibacterial activity. The addition of ZnO-SiO₂ significantly enhanced crosslink density, as evidenced by increased torque and accelerated cure rates. An optimal concentration of 10 phr was found to yield the highest performance. This optimal balance between chemical activation and mechanical reinforcement resulted in exceptional tensile properties, including notable improvements in Young’s modulus, tensile strength, and strain-induced crystallization (SIC). These enhancements were attributed to the strong interactions between ENR molecular chains and SiO₂ surfaces. However, excessive ZnO-SiO₂ concentrations caused filler agglomeration, which reduced both mechanical and antibacterial performances. An antibacterial analysis revealed a remarkable 99.9% bacterial reduction at 10 phr ZnO-SiO₂, attributed to the Zn²⁺ ion release and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, with sustained activity even after thermal aging. This durability underscores the composites’ potential for long-term applications. The findings establish ZnO-SiO₂ as a dual-functional filler that optimizes crosslinking, enhances mechanical properties, and provides durable antibacterial efficiency. These results highlight the potential of TW/ENR blends while offering critical insights into mitigating filler agglomeration to improve overall material performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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