Bouncy Idea or Solid Practice? Exploring Industry Barriers in the Incorporation of Devulcanized Rubber into Compounds for Rubber Products
Abstract
1. Introduction
Natural Rubber | Synthetic Rubber | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Million Metric Tons | Million Metric Tons | |||
Region | % | % | ||
Europe | 8% | 1.02 | 14% | 1.99 |
China | 43% | 5.46 | 31% | 4.40 |
India | 8% | 1.02 | 4% | 0.57 |
Japan | 5% | 0.64 | 5% | 0.71 |
USA | 6% | 0.76 | 11% | 1.56 |
Rest of the world | 30% | 3.81 | 35% | 4.97 |
Total | 100% | 12.7 | 100% | 14.2 |
Natural Rubber | Synthetic Rubber | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Million Metric Tons | Million Metric Tons | |||
% | % | |||
General rubber goods | 27% | 0.25 | 55% | 1.09 |
Tires | 73% | 0.77 | 45% | 0.90 |
Total | 100% | 1.02 | 100% | 1.99 |
Imported | Exported | |
---|---|---|
€ Billion | € Billion | |
General rubber goods | 5.6 | 5.2 |
Tires | 5.8 | 5.6 |
Total | 11.4 | 10.8 |
2. Methods
2.1. Selecting Respondents
2.2. Interview Topics and Coding Scheme
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Comparison of Interview Data with the Literature
3. Results
3.1. Technical Factors
Barriers identified in interviews with compounders (C), general rubber goods (G), and tire manufacturers (T) | Respondents | Similar barriers identified in the literature about recovered carbon black (rCB) and thermoplastic recycled granulate (TRG) | ||
C | G | T | ||
Research theme: overall quality of supplied recycled ingredients. | ||||
Not a drop-in replacement: devulcanized rubber is not considered to be a drop-in replacement for virgin rubber, as the properties are not similar to virgin materials. | 2 | 2 | 2 | rCB: the scientific literature only mentions different properties for rCB [44,48]. A white paper: [49]. |
TRG: [31,50,51,52]. | ||||
Research theme: consistency in both the quality and quantity of the supply of recycled materials. | ||||
Heterogeneity: respondents developed their own, exclusive compounds for unique products, which causes heterogeneous waste streams. | 2 | 2 | 2 | Causes of heterogeneity: rCB: [43,53]. |
TRG: [54]. | ||||
Reduced material properties: devulcanized rubber was derived from mixed sources, which resulted in a heterogeneous mixture with inconsistent quality. | 3 | 1 | 1 | rCB: [44,55]. |
TRG: [32,34,46,51,56,57]. | ||||
Unintended side effects: the addition of recycled material could lead to unexpected side effects during processing or use. | 2 | 1 | 1 | rCB: [44,58]. |
TRG: [57,59,60]. | ||||
Research theme: Required changes in compound formulations and product designs to use recycled ingredients. | ||||
Need to reformulate compounds: compounds needed to be reformulated to compensate for the composition of devulcanized rubber. | 2 | 1 | 2 | rCB: [44,58]. |
TRG: [61,62]. | ||||
Numerous formulation variations: general rubber goods manufacturers and compounders often had dozens of different compound formulations for specific products, all of which needed to be adapted. | 3 | 1 | - | rCB: No literature identified. However, the literature does mention the limitations of rCB for specific purposes [44,48] |
TRG: No literature identified but limitations of TR were mentioned for specific purposes, such as applications in the automotive industry [56,63]. |
3.2. Market Factors
Barriers identified in interviews with compounders (C), general rubber goods (G), and tire manufacturers (T). | Devulcanization respondents | Similar barriers identified in the literature about recovered carbon black (rCB) and thermoplastic recycled granulate (TRG). | ||
C | G | T | ||
Research theme: investment costs for compounding with recycled ingredients. | ||||
Additional expenditures: additional expenditures to compensate for a less consistent quality of the material. | 2 | 2 | 2 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TRG: [31,33,35,51,56]. | ||||
Research theme: costs of recycled ingredients versus virgin ingredients. | ||||
Low purchasing cost: devulcanized rubber was cheaper than virgin rubber and less valuable on the market. | 1 | 1 | 2 | rCB: [71,72]. |
TRG: [31,73]. | ||||
Research theme: market dynamics for products with recycled ingredients. | ||||
More customer requests, greater diversity of supply: in business-to-business sales, more customers were requesting rubber compounds that included biobased or recycled materials, and an increasing number of suppliers were offering recycled materials. | 2 | 2 | 2 | rCB: [72]. In additional to this source, the topic was raised by tire manufacturers in their white paper [74]. |
TRG: the literature describes an imbalance between supply and demand in terms of availability, quality, and pricing [31,75]. | ||||
Increased obligations: more requirements for recycled materials than for virgin materials; companies had to undergo additional audits and environmental impact assessment from their customers. | 3 | 1 | 3 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TRG: [29,33,76]. |
3.3. Cultural Factors
Barriers identified in interviews with compounders (C), general rubber goods (G), and tire manufacturers (T) | Devulcanization respondents | Similar barriers identified in the literature about recovered carbon black (rCB) and thermoplastic recycled granulate (TRG) | ||
C | G | T | ||
Research theme: position of sustainability in company culture. | ||||
Limited room for compromises on quality and costs: companies set clear sustainability goals, but have no willingness to compromise on either cost or quality. | 2 | 2 | 1 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TRG: [31,51,56,81]. | ||||
Research theme: collaborative efforts to align and increase the use of recycled materials in new products. | ||||
No coordination: coordinated industry wide efforts were identified to increase recovered carbon black but not devulcanized rubber. | - | - | 3 | rCB: no academic literature identified but other sources mention that tire manufacturers collaborated with rCB suppliers and other stakeholders [74]. |
TRG: Although no academic literature was identified, several inter-company collaborations were recognized: [82,83]. | ||||
Research theme: end user appreciation for increasing the uptake of recycled ingredients. | ||||
Low consumer demand for recycled materials: no demand was identified for tires made from sustainable materials. | 2 | - | 2 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TRG: [31,33,84]. |
3.4. Institutional Factors
Barriers identified in interviews with compounders (C), general rubber goods (G), and tire manufacturers (T). | Devulcanization respondents | Similar barriers identified in the literature about recovered carbon black (rCB) and thermoplastic recycled granulate (TRG). | ||
C | G | T | ||
Research theme: coordinated efforts for alignment and standardization to increase the uptake of recycled materials. | ||||
No specific standards: respondents mentioned standards for other recycled materials but were not aware of such standards for devulcanization. | - | - | 3 | rCB: a specific ASTM standard, including a test method were developed for rCB [90,91]. |
TRG: Standards were developed by industries for thermoplastic recyclate [76]. | ||||
Research theme: accountability mechanisms of manufacturers that impact the use of recycled ingredients. | ||||
Liability concerns: Companies were accountable for their products, including liability for any damages caused by those products or their components. This made the companies more risk-averse and reluctant to increase the amount of recycled materials. | 2 | 1 | 1 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TRG: no literature identified. | ||||
Research theme: alignment of regulations across sectors and geographical regions that impact the use of recycled ingredients. | ||||
National regulatory differences: differences in interpretations of EU waste laws made it increasingly difficult to ship rubber across borders. | 1 | 1 | 1 | rCB: no literature identified. |
TP: [28,35]. | ||||
Regulations from other domains: a key concern was meeting multiple regulations concerning environmental and safety goals. | 1 | 1 | 3 | rCB: no literature was identified |
TRG: [28,31,35,92,93]. | ||||
Need for alignment of regulations: respondents indicated a need for better governmental alignment of regulations that directly or indirectly impact the adoption of recycled materials. | - | 1 | 3 | rCB: no literature was identified. |
TRG: [28,31,35,92]. |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. End-of-Life Methods for Rubber
Feedstock | Working Principle | Applications | |
Devulcanization | Rubber crumbs or powder | Devulcanized rubber compounds are aimed at a higher quality than reclaimed rubber. Devulcanization is a process that aims to selectively break the cross-links while keeping the rubber polymers intact. This is achieved through various methods, such as exposing the rubber to heat, chemicals, and shear strength. The result is a rubber compound that can be re-vulcanized [3,9,110]. | Devulcanized rubber can be used to replace virgin rubber and additives. In most cases, this material is blended into new rubber compounds to compromise for any loss of quality [5,6]. Additionally, devulcanized rubber is added to bitumen to partially replace the plasticizer SBS [4,111]. |
Reclaimed rubber | Rubber crumbs or powder | On the molecular scale, in a reclaim process, both the rubber polymers and cross-links and are randomly broken. The input of an industrial reclaim process consists of rubber crumbs or powder, which are converted into a rubber compound that can be re-vulcanized [3,9]. | Reclaimed rubber is mostly added to rubber compounds and then re-vulcanized. It is mostly used for less critical applications or added in small quantities to new rubber compounds [9]. |
Binder systems | Rubber crumbs or powder | For certain applications, the granulated rubber is bound with a polyurethane or a thermoplast [112,113]. Additionally, the surface of the rubber powder can be treated for better bonding in a rubber compound [114]. | This material can be used for various products, such as rubber tiles and mats and underlayment for floors [113]. |
Pyrolysis | Rubber crumbs or powder | Pyrolysis is a thermal process in which rubber compounds are decomposed by heat (400–800 degrees Celsius) in the absence of oxygen into smaller molecules, which leads to oil, carbon black, and gas [110]. | Pyrolysis oil can be used as a fuel and in theory for producing new monomers to create new plastics and rubber [115]. The carbon black can replace certain grades of virgin carbon black [116]. Lastly, the gas can be a source for energy [117]. |
Retreading | Passenger car tires, tuck tires, airplane tires, and off-the-road tires | In retreading the tread of a worn-out tire is removed. A new rubber tread compound is vulcanized onto the tire. Retreading is different from the recycling process, because the carcass of a tire can be reused [118]. The removed rubber from the tread can be recycled by another method, such as devulcanization [4] | Retreading is primarily used for tires from planes, truck, agricultural tires and sometimes passenger car tires [119]. |
Mechanical grinding | Different types of tires and rubber products, such as conveyor belts | Rubber is sorted from steel, canvas and other contaminants and is then mechanically processed into crumbs or powder of various sizes [113]. An alternative to mechanical processing is cryogenic shattering [120]. | Rubber crumb or powder is used as a feedstock for various recycling methods, such as reclaim and devulcanization [9]. Additionally, rubber crumbs can be utilized as artificial turf on sports fields or recreational surfaces [120]. Rubber powder is also used as a simple filler material that can be added in small quantities to new rubber compounds [114]. Rubber crumbs are used as an additive for tarmac/asphalt [113]. |
Incineration | Tires and other end-of-life rubber products | Tires are disposed of by incineration, but this process produces toxic emissions [110]. Rubber is incinerated in cement plants [2] as an alternative source of heat, which produces less toxic emissions than coal [121] | Incineration can be used to recover 32.6 MJ/kg of embedded energy in tires [110]. |
Landfill | Tires and other end-of-life rubber products | Globally, 55 percent of all tires are dumped in landfills [122] | Large quantities of landfilled tires are known to pose a significant fire hazard. Additionally, they are toxic to soils and groundwater, and when burned, they cause air pollution [123] |
Appendix B. Opening Statement and Topic List Used for Interviews
Appendix B.1. Opening Statement
Appendix B.2. Interview Topics
- Why did you start to incorporate recycled materials in rubber products/compounds?
- What type of recycled materials?
- Since when do you incorporate recycled rubber into your products/compounds? Why at that moment?
- Have you applied recycled material to a new type of product or to existing products?
- What new skills, facilities and resources did you need in your company to add recycled materials to rubber?
- Up to what degree do you experience an advantages or disadvantages of being one of the first companies that incorporates recycled material in rubber?
- What types of recycled source material (devulcanized, reclaimed, micronized rubber material, etc.) are most and least suitable for you to add to your rubber compounds? How does devulcanization fit in this list?
- What product categories are most suitable products to incorporate such recycled materials?
- How do you experience the performance and processability of recycled source material compared to virgin rubber material?
- To what degree do the properties of your recycled source material pose challenges, and how can you mitigate these challenges?
- How would you rate the availability of the recycled source materials for production?
- How do you assess the quality of the supplied rubber material, specifically regarding contamination such as the presence of PAHs?
- Did you have to change your production process to process recycled rubber, and why?
- Up to what extent did you have to change your research and development process for processing recycled rubber?
- How would you evaluate the overall reliability of suppliers of recycled source material?
- Up to what extent is it an added value for your customers that you include recycled content in products, or do they have reservations?
- Up to what extent did encounter additional costs when incorporating recycled materials into your products? Includes upfront costs?
- Did upcoming regulations positively or negatively influence your decision to incorporate recycled rubber into your products?
- Up to what extent have you benefitted from financial incentives (e.g., subsidies) that encouraged you to use recycled materials in manufacturing processes?
- (How) did industry standards positively or negatively influence your decision to incorporate recycled rubber into your products?
- Up to what degree do you perceive a willingness amongst customers to add recycled materials?
- Up to what extent is your engagement with your suppliers of recycled material different from suppliers of virgin materials?
- How does the addition of recycled material to products affect your relationship with your compounder(s)?
- Is there any topic that is not addressed during this interview and you would like to address?
Appendix C. Interview Coding
Technical factors are the material-related aspects and the industrial activities to process recycled ingredients into compounds for new rubber. |
Identified research themes |
Overall quality of supplied recycled materials
|
Required changes in compound formulations and product designs to use recycled materials
|
Consistency in both the quality and quantity of the supply of recycled materials
|
Market factors are the aspects related to the cost, pricing, and market acceptance. |
Identified research themes: |
Investment costs for compounding with recycled materials
|
Costs and benefits of recycled materials versus virgin materials
|
Market dynamics for products with recycled materials
|
Cultural factors are related to the extent to which a culture is collaborative and focused on engaging in the circular economy, as well as aligning value to facilitate the use of recycled materials. |
Identified research themes: |
Position of sustainability in company culture
|
Coordinated efforts to align and increase the use of recycled materials in new products
|
Consumer appreciation and involvement aimed at increasing the uptake of recycled materials
|
Institutional factors are the policies, rules, regulations, taxes, and infrastructure that directly or indirectly influence the decision-making of companies |
Identified research themes: |
Efforts for alignment and standardization to increase the uptake of recycled materials
|
Accountability mechanisms of manufacturers that impact the use of recycled materials
|
Alignment of regulations across sectors and regions that impact the use of recycled materials
|
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# | Type of Company | Role Within Company | Reference Code |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Tire manufacturer | Research and Development Manager | T1 |
2 | Tire manufacturer | Research and Development Manager | T2 |
3 | Tire manufacturer | Corporate Affairs Manager | T3 |
4 | Compounder | Director | C1 |
5 | Compounder | Research and Development Manager | C2 |
6 | Compounder | Research and Development Manager | C3 |
7 | Producer of general rubber goods | Director | G1 |
8 | Producer of general rubber goods | Production Manager | G2 |
Technical factors are the material-related aspects and the industrial activities to incorporate recycled ingredients into compounds for new rubber. | ||
Identified research themes | Sources | Key words |
Overall quality of supplied recycled materials. | [31,33,34,35,36] | Quality |
Required changes in compound formulations and product designs to use recycled materials. | [31,36,37] | Compound formulation, product design |
Consistency in both the quality and quantity of the supply of recycled materials. | [33,38] | Consistency, quality, supply |
Market Factors are the aspects related to the cost, pricing and market acceptance. | ||
Identified research themes: | Sources | |
Investment costs for compounding with recycled materials. | [31,33] | Investments, costs |
Costs and pricing of recycled materials versus virgin materials. | [31,32,33,35] | Cost, pricing, recycled, virgin |
Market dynamics for products with recycled materials. | [32,33,39] | Market dynamics |
Cultural factors are related to how a culture is collaborative and focused on engaging in the circular economy, as well as aligning value to facilitate the use of recycled materials. | ||
Identified research themes: | Sources | |
Position of sustainability in company culture. | [31,33,39] | Sustainability, company/organisation, culture |
Coordinated efforts to align and increase the use of recycled materials in new products. | [33,35,40] | Coordination, alignment |
End user appreciation of increasing the uptake of recycled materials. | [32,33] | End user, customer, appreciation |
Institutional factors are the policies, rules, regulations, taxes and infrastructure that directly or indirectly influence the decision-making of companies. | ||
Identified research themes: | Sources | |
Efforts towards industry alignment and standardization to increase the uptake of recycled materials. | [31,33] | Alignment, standards |
Accountability mechanisms of manufacturers and compounders that impact the use of recycled materials. | [33,35,39] | Accountability/ responsibility, mechanisms |
Alignment of regulations across sectors and geographical regions that impact the use of recycled materials. | [31,35] | Alignment, regulations, sectors, regions |
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Roetman, E.; Joustra, J.; Heideman, G.; Balkenende, R. Bouncy Idea or Solid Practice? Exploring Industry Barriers in the Incorporation of Devulcanized Rubber into Compounds for Rubber Products. Polymers 2025, 17, 1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111570
Roetman E, Joustra J, Heideman G, Balkenende R. Bouncy Idea or Solid Practice? Exploring Industry Barriers in the Incorporation of Devulcanized Rubber into Compounds for Rubber Products. Polymers. 2025; 17(11):1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111570
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoetman, Eric, Jelle Joustra, Geert Heideman, and Ruud Balkenende. 2025. "Bouncy Idea or Solid Practice? Exploring Industry Barriers in the Incorporation of Devulcanized Rubber into Compounds for Rubber Products" Polymers 17, no. 11: 1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111570
APA StyleRoetman, E., Joustra, J., Heideman, G., & Balkenende, R. (2025). Bouncy Idea or Solid Practice? Exploring Industry Barriers in the Incorporation of Devulcanized Rubber into Compounds for Rubber Products. Polymers, 17(11), 1570. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111570