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Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 December 2025 | Viewed by 26095

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Victoria Fernández

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Guest Editor

Department Systems and Natural Resources, School of Forestry, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Interests: agrochemicals; agro-forestry; plant biochemistry; plant anatomy; plant nutrition; plant physiology; plant surfaces

Prof. Dr. Thomas Eichert

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Guest Editor

Department of Horticulture, University of Applied Sciences Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
Interests: abiotic stresses, agrochemicals; foliar fertilization, plant biochemistry; plant anatomy; plant nutrition; plant physiology; plant surfaces, plant water relations

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Plant surfaces play a major protective role in combating various biotic and abiotic stress factors and are the main barrier to the absorption of agrochemical sprays commonly used in plant production, such as foliar fertilisers or biostimulants. In the last few decades, many studies have been performed with the aim of characterising plant surface properties, their permeability to water and agrochemicals or their interaction with microorganisms or atmospheric aerosols. However, there are still many gaps in knowledge concerning plant surfaces and their physico-chemical performance, interactions with surface-deposited matter and permeability to gases and liquids.

This Special Issue has a broad scope and welcomes the submission of original research or review articles devoted to plant-surface-related topics such as: characterising the properties of natural surfaces (e.g., the cuticle, trichomes, stomata, etc.) or plant surface biomimetic materials; evaluating factors affecting plant surface interactions with liquids or solids (e.g., aerosols, contaminants, insects or microorganisms); and the absorption and physiological effect of foliar-absorbed pure water and/or agrochemical sprays (e.g., foliar fertilisers, biostimulants, nanoparticles, herbicides or plant protection products). Furthermore, we welcome articles shedding light on the influence of potential stress conditions such as nutrient limitations, water shortage or pest and pathogen attacks ultimately affecting the properties and permeability of plant surfaces. Studies evaluating the development of agrochemical spray formulations that may improve plant surface interactions, foliar absorption and plant responses to agrochemical sprays as well as studies focusing on the foliar deposition and effect of aerosols, contaminants or microorganisms, also considering the importance of the prevailing environmental conditions, are also suitable.

Prof. Dr. Victoria Fernández
Prof. Dr. Thomas Eichert
Guest Editors

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Keywords

plant surface
surface-deposited matter
permeability
biotic, abiotic influence
foliar fertilisers
biostimulants
absorption
stress response

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 3302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iron and Zinc Foliar Spraying Affected Sideritis cypria Post. Growth, Mineral Content and Antioxidant Properties

by Antonios Chrysargyris and Nikolaos Tzortzakis

Plants 2025, 14(6), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14060840 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 890

Abstract

Species of the genus Sideritis are gaining heightened recognition for their applications in both culinary and industrial contexts. The improvement of crop cultivation techniques to promote the quality of the final product is imperative nowadays for ensuring sustainable and successive agricultural production, especially for medicinal and aromatic plant species. The present study examined the impacts of foliar application of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) on Sideritis cypria plants grown in hydroponics. The spraying of Fe (1.79 mM and 10.79 mM) and Zn (1.74 mM and 10.43 mM Zn) was applied four times at 10-day intervals, and the effects on plant growth, plant physiology, antioxidant status and nutrient uptake were investigated. The applications of both the high Fe and Zn levels decreased the plant yield and dry matter content. The use of the high Fe levels, particularly, resulted in elevated oxidative stress, as indicated by the increased levels of lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide production and the increased peroxidase enzymatic activity. The application of the high Fe levels (10.79 mM Fe) also induced the plants’ non-enzymatic antioxidant mechanisms and the total flavonoid content. All foliar applications increased the accumulation of sodium in the leaf tissue. The plants’ calcium content was increased after the treatment with Zn, while the magnesium content was increased only when the high Zn level (10.43 mM Zn) was applied. Interestingly, the foliar application of both Zn and Fe had no effect on the build-up of zinc or iron content in the leaf tissue. Biofortification with minerals is a key approach to enhancing the biological quality and the nutritional value of plants, while its foliar application or application via different fertigation strategies needs to be evaluated either as single or as combined practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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12 pages, 1509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Two Different Methods of Fulvic Acid Application (Seed Priming and Foliar Spray) on Growth, Yield, and Nutritional Quality of Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

by Rehab M. Mahdy, Adel M. Al-Saif, Mohamed E. M. Ahmed, Tahany S. Abd El-Bary, Ashutosh Sharma, Abdel-Nasser A. El-Sheshtawy, Rasha S. El-Serafy and Tamer S. Abd El-Ghany

Plants 2024, 13(23), 3380; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13233380 - 30 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1695

Abstract

Pea is a commercially significant legume that is widely utilized worldwide and has a elevated amount of nutrition and bioactive components. Its consumption is attributed to a number of health benefits and its potential as a functional food. Fulvic acid can be used as a bio-stimulant to promote plant growth and increase nutrient availability and uptake. A field experiment was designed during two subsequent cropping seasons (i.e., 2022–23 and 2023–24) to evaluate the impact of two methods of fulvic acid application of seed priming and foliar spray on the growth, yield, antioxidant content, and nutritional value of pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants. The seeds were primed with fulvic acid at 1.5, 3 g L⁻¹, and water, while a foliar spray of fulvic acid with the same doses was performed on the seedlings of non-primed seeds. The results obtained exhibited that the seed priming technique with fulvic acid outperformed the fulvic acid foliar applications. The increase in the fulvic acid dose to 3 g L⁻¹ in both application techniques exhibited the highest plant growth, heaviest fresh and dry weights, and highest green seed yield. The maximum growth parameters were recorded after the foliar spray treatment at a dose of 3 g L⁻¹, as it led to improvement in the growth parameters, leaf pigments, and total carbohydrates. The highest number of seeds per pod, number of pods per plant, 100-seed weight, and seed yield were obtained by the seed priming technique. From the results obtained, it may be concluded that the application of fulvic acid at 3 g L⁻¹ via the seed priming technique is beneficial for enhancing the productivity of peas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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11 pages, 1351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling Calcium Absorption and Distribution in Peach and Nectarine during Fruit Development through ⁴⁴Ca Isotope Labeling

by Francisca Carrasco-Cuello, Gregory Van der Heijden, Josep Rufat and Estanis Torres

Plants 2024, 13(16), 2287; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13162287 - 17 Aug 2024

Viewed by 932

Abstract

Calcium foliar applications are known to effectively enhance peach quality; however, the optimal implementation strategy regarding fruit developmental stages and cultivars remains unclear. In this study, three different moments of fruit Ca applications in peach and nectarine are tested: Early season, Mid-season, and Late season. For this aim, the ⁴⁴Ca isotope was used as a tracer, enabling the quantification and location of the Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer. Stone, flesh, and skin ⁴⁴Ca enrichment was separately analyzed at harvest. The results indicate that Ca absorption in the fruits from external CaCl₂ applications was influenced by the timing of the application during fruit development, with Late-season applications proving to be the most effective in increasing the Ca content in the fruit, corresponding with a higher fruit size at the application moment. Nevertheless, no differences in the absorption efficiency were found between the three timings of the application. Furthermore, the Ca from the foliar fertilizer in the fruit predominately remained in the flesh, followed by the skin. The Ca derived from the foliar fertilizer reached the stone in all of the experimental situations, but the Early- and Mid-season applications resulted in the highest amount of Ca derived from the fertilizer in this part of the fruit. Interestingly, the peach exhibited a higher Ca absorption efficiency compared to the nectarine, likely due to the presence of trichomes that retain the foliar fertilizer on the fruit surface. In conclusion, the Ca absorption and distribution in peaches depends on the cultivar and timing of the Ca application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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20 pages, 4227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungal Hyphae on the Assimilation Branches Are Beneficial for Haloxylon ammodendron to Absorb Atmospheric Water Vapor: Adapting to an Extreme Drought Environment

by Xiaohua Wang, Honglang Xiao, Lei Pang and Fang Wang

Plants 2024, 13(9), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13091233 - 29 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1393

Abstract

Research on endophytic fungi in desert plants, particularly the epiphytic or endophytic fungi of leaves, remains limited. In the extremely arid regions of northwest China, the ultra-xerophytic desert plant Haloxylon ammodendron harbors white fungi on its assimilating branches during autumn. The hyphae of these fungi intertwine, both internally and externally, comprising superficial, bridging, and endophytic types. The superficial hyphae attach to the surface of the assimilating branches and continuously grow and intersect, forming a thick layer of felt-like hyphae. This thick, felt-like layer of hyphae facilitates the adsorption of atmospheric water vapor on the surface of the hyphae or the assimilating branches, allowing H. ammodendron to capture atmospheric moisture, even under low humidity. Some superficial hyphae penetrate the cuticle into the epidermis, becoming bridging hyphae, which can rapidly transport water from the outside of the epidermis to the inside. The endophytic hyphae shuttle within the epidermis, achieving rapid water transfer within the epidermis of the assimilating branches. The presence of these three types of hyphae not only enables the assimilating branches of H. ammodendron to achieve rapid water absorption and transmission, but also facilitates the uptake of atmospheric water vapor under low humidity conditions. We discuss the mechanism by which the hyphae promote water absorption from the perspectives of hyphal composition, the formation of felt-like structures, and environmental conditions. We consider the presence of fungal hyphae on the surface of the H. ammodendron assimilating branches as an inevitable ecological process in arid environments. This study provides important theoretical insights into the mechanisms underlying the strong drought resistance of desert plants in extremely arid regions and offers strategies for desertification control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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16 pages, 2952 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mineral Particles in Foliar Fertilizer Formulations Can Improve the Rate of Foliar Uptake

by Carlos Pimentel, Carlos M. Pina, Nora Müller, Luis Adrián Lara, Gabriela Melo Rodriguez, Fabrizio Orlando, Joachim Schoelkopf and Victoria Fernández

Plants 2024, 13(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010071 - 25 Dec 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3346

Abstract

The application of foliar sprays of suspensions of relatively insoluble essential element salts is gradually becoming common, chiefly with the introduction of nano-technology approaches in agriculture. However, there is controversy about the effectiveness of such sparingly soluble nutrient sources as foliar fertilizers. In this work, we focussed on analysing the effect of adding Ca-carbonate (calcite, CaCO₃) micro- and nano-particles as model sparingly soluble mineral compounds to foliar fertilizer formulations in terms of increasing the rate of foliar absorption. For these purposes, we carried out short-term foliar application experiments by treating leaves of species with variable surface features and wettability rates. The leaf absorption efficacy of foliar formulations containing a surfactant and model soluble nutrient sources, namely Ca-chloride (CaCl₂), magnesium sulphate (MgSO₄), potassium nitrate (KNO₃), or zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄), was evaluated alone or after addition of calcite particles. In general, the combination of the Ca-carbonate particles with an essential element salt had a synergistic effect and improved the absorption of Ca and the nutrient element provided. In light of the positive effects of using calcite particles as foliar formulation adjuvants, dolomite nano- and micro-particles were also tested as foliar formulation additives, and the results were also positive in terms of increasing foliar uptake. The observed nutrient element foliar absorption efficacy can be partially explained by geochemical modelling, which enabled us to predict how these formulations will perform at least in chemical terms. Our results show the major potential of adding mineral particles as foliar formulation additives, but the associated mechanisms of action and possible additional benefits to plants should be characterised in future investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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15 pages, 3506 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Foliar Calcium Absorption by Tomato Plants: Comparing the Effects of Calcium Sources and Adjuvant Usage

by Eduardo Santos, Gabriel Sgarbiero Montanha, Luís Fernando Agostinho, Samira Polezi, João Paulo Rodrigues Marques and Hudson Wallace Pereira de Carvalho

Plants 2023, 12(14), 2587; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142587 - 8 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3653

Abstract

The deficiency of calcium (Ca) reduces the quality and shelf life of fruits. In this scenario, although foliar spraying of Ca²⁺ has been used, altogether with soil fertilization, as an alternative to prevent deficiencies, little is known regarding its absorption dynamics by plant leaves. Herein, in vivo microprobe X-ray fluorescence was employed aiming to monitor the foliar absorption of CaCl₂, Ca-citrate complex, and Ca₃(PO₄)₂ nanoparticles with and without using adjuvant. We also investigated whether Sr²⁺ can be employed as Ca²⁺ proxy in foliar absorption studies. Moreover, the impact of treatments on the cuticle structure was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. For this study, 45-day-old tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L., cv. Micro-Tom) plants were used as a model species. After 100 h, the leaves absorbed 90, 18, and 4% of aqueous CaCl₂, Ca-citrate, and Ca₃(PO₄)₂ nanoparticles, respectively. The addition of adjuvant increased the absorption of Ca-citrate to 28%, decreased that of CaCl₂ to 77%, and did not affect Ca₃(PO₄)₂. CaCl₂ displayed an exponential decay absorption profile with half-lives of 15 h and 5 h without and with adjuvant, respectively. Ca-citrate and Ca₃(PO₄)₂ exhibited absorption profiles that were closer to a linear behavior. Sr²⁺ was a suitable Ca²⁺ tracer because of its similar absorption profiles. Furthermore, the use of adjuvant affected the epicuticular crystal structure. Our findings reveal that CaCl₂ was the most efficient Ca²⁺ source. The effects caused by adjuvant suggest that CaCl₂ and Ca-citrate were absorbed mostly through hydrophilic and lipophilic pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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14 pages, 4295 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating Leaf Wettability and Salt Hygroscopicity as Drivers for Foliar Absorption

by Neriman Tuba Barlas, Héctor Alejandro Bahamonde, Carlos Pimentel, Pedro Domínguez-Huidobro, Carlos M. Pina and Victoria Fernández

Plants 2023, 12(12), 2357; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12122357 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2512

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the rate of foliar absorption of magnesium (Mg) salts with different deliquescence and efflorescence relative humidity values (DRH and ERH, also known as point of deliquescence (POD) and point of efflorescence (POE), respectively) when supplied to leaves of model plants with different wettability properties. For this purpose, a greenhouse pot experiment was conducted with lettuce (very wettable), broccoli (highly unwettable) and leek (highly unwettable). Foliar sprays contained 0.1% surfactant plus 100 mM Mg supplied as MgCl₂·6H₂O, Mg(NO₃)₂·6H₂O or MgSO₄·7H₂O. Leaf Mg concentrations were determined 1 and 7 days after foliar application. Anion concentrations were also measured in lettuce where a significant foliar Mg absorption was detected. Leaf wettability, leaf surface free energy and fertilizer drop deposit appearance onto the foliage were assessed. It is concluded that despite including a surfactant in the spray formulation, leaf wettability plays a major role in foliar Mg absorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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13 pages, 10152 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tomato and Pepper Leaf Parts Contribute Differently to the Absorption of Foliar-Applied Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate

by Jon Niklas Henningsen, Héctor Alejandro Bahamonde, Karl Hermann Mühling and Victoria Fernández

Plants 2023, 12(11), 2152; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12112152 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2937

Abstract

Foliar fertilisation is an application technique that is increasingly being used in agriculture and offers the possibility of providing nutrients directly to the site of highest demand. Especially for phosphorus (P), foliar application is an interesting alternative to soil fertilisation, but foliar uptake mechanisms are poorly understood. To gain a better understanding of the importance of leaf surface features for foliar P uptake, we conducted a study with tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and pepper (Capsicum annuum) plants, which have different leaf surface traits. For this purpose, drops of 200 mM KH₂PO₄ without surfactant were applied onto the adaxial or abaxial leaf side or to the leaf veins and the rate of foliar P absorption was evaluated after one day. Additionally, leaf surfaces were characterised in detail by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), estimating also leaf surface wettability and free energy, among other parameters. While the leaves of pepper hardly contained any trichomes, the abaxial side and the leaf veins of tomato leaves were densely covered with trichomes. The cuticle of tomato leaves was thin (approximately 50 nm), while that of pepper was thick (approximately 150–200 nm) and impregnated with lignin. Due to the fact that trichomes were most abundant in the leaf veins of tomato, dry foliar fertiliser drop residues were observed to be anchored there, and the highest P uptake occurred via tomato leaf veins, resulting in 62% increased P concentration. However, in pepper, the highest rate of P absorption was recorded after abaxial-side P treatment (+66% P). Our results provide evidence that different leaf parts contribute unequally to the absorption of foliar-applied agrochemicals, which could potentially be useful for optimising foliar spray treatments in different crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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11 pages, 624 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Foliar Application of Potassium Salts to Olive, with Focus on Accompanying Anions

by Héctor A. Bahamonde, Carlos Pimentel, Luis Adrián Lara, Vikingur Bahamonde-Fernández and Victoria Fernández

Plants 2023, 12(3), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030472 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3326

Abstract

Potassium (K) is an essential element, which is often supplied to horticultural crops via foliar spraying. Some studies have investigated the effect of different foliar-applied K compounds; however, most studies have focussed on crop quality and yield parameters, or were performed with isolated leaf cuticles. The aim of this study was to evaluate the rates of the foliar ion penetration and leaf surface deposition of 130 mM K sprays of compounds with markedly different point of deliquescence (POD) and efflorescence (POE) values, the rates having been previously estimated in climate chamber trials. Shoots of field-grown, commercial olive trees were sprayed with K-nitrate (KNO₃), K-sulphate (K₂SO₄), K-chloride (KCl), K-phosphate (K₃PO₄), K-carbonate (K₂CO₃) and K-bicarbonate (KHCO₃), and leaf samples were collected after 3 and 24 h. Cation and anion concentrations were determined in the leaf tissues, and in a preliminary leaf water wash for estimating surface-deposited ion concentrations. No significant leaf tissue K increments were recorded between the K sprays. Olive tissue anion concentrations showed different patterns, and a chloride (Cl⁻) increase was detected 3 h after the foliar KCl supply. On the other hand, the foliar K applications led to leaf nitrate changes regardless of the K source supplied. High amounts of K and accompanying ions were recovered in the washing liquid of the foliar K-supplied leaves. Some foliar K treatments increased the leaf surface concentration of sulphate and chloride, suggesting a potential effect on leaf cell anion extrusion. Hence, despite no evidence of foliar K uptake, an effect of leaf anion concentrations was observed, indicating that foliar nutrient sprays may influence leaf and leaf surface anion balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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16 pages, 3363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Foliar P Application Cannot Fully Restore Photosynthetic Capacity, P Nutrient Status, and Growth of P Deficient Maize (Zea mays L.)

by Jon Niklas Henningsen, Bruno Maximilian Görlach, Victoria Fernández, Jasper Lauritz Dölger, Andreas Buhk and Karl Hermann Mühling

Plants 2022, 11(21), 2986; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212986 - 5 Nov 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2477

Abstract

The essential plant nutrient phosphorus (P) is key for numerous structures and processes in crops and its deficiency can severely restrict yield and quality. As soil P availability for plant uptake is often limited, foliar P application can be an alternative means of supplying P to the plants during the growth period. This study was aimed at investigating the effect of foliar P application on photosynthetic parameters, P nutritional status, and growth of P deficient maize over time. Plants of Zea mays L. cv. Keops were grown with deficient and sufficient amounts of P in hydroponics. Foliar P treatments were applied to P deficient plants and several physiological parameters were monitored for 21 days. The variables measured were leaf gas exchange parameters, SPAD values, foliar P absorption, re-translocation rates, and plant biomass production. Foliar P application significantly increased CO₂-assimilation and SPAD values and additionally enhanced biomass production in all plant components. Elemental analysis revealed increased tissue P concentrations following foliar P application compared to P deficient plants. While increased growth of P-deficient plants was steadily promoted by foliar P spraying for the entire experimental period, the positive effect on CO₂ assimilation and P concentration was transient and vanished some days after the foliar treatment. P deficiency markedly impaired the efficiency of physiological processes of maize plants. As a conclusion, foliar P fertilisation improved physiological and agronomical plant parameters over time, but failed to restore plant functionality of P deficient maize plants during a prolonged experimental period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Surfaces: Physico-Chemical Properties, Interaction with Deposited Matter and Permeability)

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