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Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals
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Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Green Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2020) | Viewed by 62862

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Rafał M. Łukasik

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Łukasiewicz Research Network, Łukasiewicz Centre, Poleczki 19, 02-822 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: green chemistry; biorefinery; bioenergy; biomass valorization; CO2; ionic liquids; value-added products; building blocks
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue of Molecules “Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals” aims to explore the existing technologies and most recent developments for the production of more advanced biofuels, providing an introduction to lignocellulosic biomass and the processes for its conversion into biofuels. Similarly, lignocellulosic biomass processing to biochemicals will be discussed. This Special Issue will consider biorefinery concepts as well as the challenges of biofuel and biochemical production. In addition to current and novel pre-treatment techniques and their technical, environmental, and economic implications, this Special Issue aims to examine further the particularities of conversion processes for biofuels and biochemicals, including chemical, biochemical, thermochemical, and combined approaches. Also, this Special Issue aims to address aspects related to techno-economic and environmental analysis, which may include supply chain assessment, by-products, zero-waste techniques, and process evaluation and optimization. Finally, policy application and development related to the entire value chain will be analyzed. For this reason, this Special Issue is particularly addressed to researchers in crosscutting areas addressing any aspects of biofuel and biochemical production.

Dr. Rafał Łukasik
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Lignocellulosic biomass
  • Biofuels
  • Biochemicals
  • Pre-treatment
  • Enzymatic Hydrolysis
  • Chemical Conversion
  • Catalysis
  • Fermentation
  • Downstream processing
  • Life Cycle Analysis
  • Techno-economic analysis
  • Life Cycle Costing analysis
  • Wastes
  • Residues
  • Upgrade
  • Biorefinery
  • Green Chemistry
  • Biomass logistics
  • Feedstock supply
  • Biomass cultivation
  • Pyrolysis
  • Gasification
  • Torrefaction
  • Biogas
  • Anaerobic digestion
  • Metabolic engineering
  • Syngas
  • Policy development

Published Papers (15 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 910 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Bioethanol Production from Enzymatic Treatment of Argan Pulp Feedstock
by Jihane Zeghlouli, Gwendoline Christophe, Amine Guendouz, Cherkaoui El Modafar, Abdeljalil Belkamel, Philippe Michaud and Cédric Delattre
Molecules 2021, 26(9), 2516; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092516 - 26 Apr 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2814
Abstract
Argan pulp is an abundant byproduct from the argan oil process. It was investigated to study the feasibility of second-generation bioethanol production using, for the first time, enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment. Argan pulp was subjected to an industrial grinding process before enzymatic hydrolysis using [...] Read more.
Argan pulp is an abundant byproduct from the argan oil process. It was investigated to study the feasibility of second-generation bioethanol production using, for the first time, enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment. Argan pulp was subjected to an industrial grinding process before enzymatic hydrolysis using Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5 L, followed by fermentation of the resulting sugar solution by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The argan pulp, as a biomass rich on carbohydrates, presented high saccharification yields (up to 91% and 88%) and an optimal ethanol bioconversion of 44.82% and 47.16% using 30 FBGU/g and 30 U/g of Viscozyme L and Celluclast 1.5 L, respectively, at 10%w/v of argan biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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18 pages, 947 KiB  
Article
Maize Silage Pretreatment via Steam Refining and Subsequent Enzymatic Hydrolysis for the Production of Fermentable Carbohydrates
by Malte Jörn Krafft, Olga Frey, Katrin U. Schwarz and Bodo Saake
Molecules 2020, 25(24), 6022; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25246022 - 19 Dec 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2425
Abstract
Maize, also called corn, is one of the most available feedstocks worldwide for lignocellulosic biorefineries. However, a permanent biomass supply over the year is essential for industrial biorefinery application. In that context, ensiling is a well-known agricultural application to produce durable animal feed [...] Read more.
Maize, also called corn, is one of the most available feedstocks worldwide for lignocellulosic biorefineries. However, a permanent biomass supply over the year is essential for industrial biorefinery application. In that context, ensiling is a well-known agricultural application to produce durable animal feed for the whole year. In this study, ensiled maize was used for steam refining experiments with subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis using the Cellic® CTec2 to test the application possibilities of an ensiled material for the biorefinery purpose of fermentable carbohydrate production. Steam refining was conducted from mild (log R0 = 1.59) to severe conditions (log R0 = 4.12). The yields were determined, and the resulting fractions were characterized. Hereafter, enzymatic hydrolysis of the solid fiber fraction was conducted, and the carbohydrate recovery was calculated. A conversion to monomers of around 50% was found for the mildest pretreatment (log R0 = 1.59). After pretreatment at the highest severity of 4.12, it was possible to achieve a conversion of 100% of the theoretical available carbohydrates. From these results, it is clear that a sufficient pretreatment is necessary to achieve sufficient recovery rates. Thus, it can be concluded that ensiled maize pretreated by steam refining is a suitable and highly available feedstock for lignocellulosic biorefineries. Ultimately, it can be assumed that ensiling is a promising storage method to pave the way for a full-year biomass supply for lignocellulosic biorefinery concepts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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13 pages, 2301 KiB  
Article
Obtaining Granules from Waste Tannery Shavings and Mineral Additives by Wet Pulp Granulation
by Katarzyna Ławińska, Szymon Szufa, Remigiusz Modrzewski, Andrzej Obraniak, Tomasz Wężyk, Andrzej Rostocki and Tomasz P. Olejnik
Molecules 2020, 25(22), 5419; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225419 - 19 Nov 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2408
Abstract
This paper presents the results of research on the granulation process of leather industry waste, i.e., tanning shavings. It is economically justified to granulate this waste together with mineral additives that are useful in the processes of their further processing. Unfortunately, the granulation [...] Read more.
This paper presents the results of research on the granulation process of leather industry waste, i.e., tanning shavings. It is economically justified to granulate this waste together with mineral additives that are useful in the processes of their further processing. Unfortunately, the granulation of raw, unsorted shavings does not obtain desired results due to their unusual properties. In this study, the possibilities of agglomeration of this waste were examined by a new method consisting of the production and then the granulation of wet pulp. During granulation, no additional binding liquid is added to the granulated bed. As part of this work, the specific surface of granulated shavings, the granulometric composition of the obtained agglomerates, and their strength parameters were determined. The use of a vibrating disc granulator, the addition of a water glass solution (in the pulp), dolomite, and gypsum made it possible to obtain durable, mechanically stable granules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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23 pages, 2775 KiB  
Article
Modified Spruce Sawdust for Sorption of Hexavalent Chromium in Batch Systems and Fixed-Bed Columns
by Dororthea Politi and Dimitrios Sidiras
Molecules 2020, 25(21), 5156; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25215156 - 05 Nov 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2009
Abstract
This study investigated the potential use of spruce sawdust that was pretreated with diethylene glycol and sulfuric acid for the removal of hexavalent chromium from wastewater. The sawdust pretreatment process was conducted at different temperatures and times. The adsorbent was characterized by quantitative [...] Read more.
This study investigated the potential use of spruce sawdust that was pretreated with diethylene glycol and sulfuric acid for the removal of hexavalent chromium from wastewater. The sawdust pretreatment process was conducted at different temperatures and times. The adsorbent was characterized by quantitative saccharification, scanning electron microscopy, and Brunauer–Emmet–Teller surface area analysis. Adsorption capacity was studied for both batch and column processes. The experimental adsorption isotherms were simulated using seven isotherm models, including Freundlich and Langmuir models. By using the Langmuir isotherm model, the maximal Cr(VI) adsorption capacity of organosolv-pretreated spruce sawdust (qm) was 318.3 mg g−1. Furthermore, the kinetic data were fitted to Lagergren, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion models, revealing that the adsorption of Cr(VI) onto spruce sawdust pretreated with diethylene glycol and sulfuric acid is best represented by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Three kinetic models, namely, the Bohart–Adams model, Thomas model, and modified dose–response (MDR) model, were used to fit the experimental data obtained from the column experiments and to resolve the characteristic parameters. The Thomas adsorption column capacity of the sawdust was increased from 2.44 to 31.1 mg g−1 upon pretreatment, thus, demonstrating that organosolv treatment enhances the adsorption capability of the material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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16 pages, 1701 KiB  
Article
Techno-Economic Analysis of Producing Glacial Acetic Acid from Poplar Biomass via Bioconversion
by Rodrigo Morales-Vera, Jordan Crawford, Chang Dou, Renata Bura and Rick Gustafson
Molecules 2020, 25(18), 4328; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184328 - 21 Sep 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5070
Abstract
Most of the current commercial production of glacial acetic acid (GAA) is by petrochemical routes, primarily methanol carbonylation. GAA is an intermediate in the production of plastics, textiles, dyes, and paints. GAA production from biomass might be an economically viable and sustainable alternative [...] Read more.
Most of the current commercial production of glacial acetic acid (GAA) is by petrochemical routes, primarily methanol carbonylation. GAA is an intermediate in the production of plastics, textiles, dyes, and paints. GAA production from biomass might be an economically viable and sustainable alternative to petroleum-derived routes. Separation of acetic acid from water is a major expense and requires considerable energy. This study evaluates and compares the technical and economic feasibility of GAA production via bioconversion using either ethyl acetate or alamine in diisobutylkerosene (DIBK) as organic solvents for purification. Models of a GAA biorefinery with a production of 120,650 tons/year were simulated in Aspen software. This biorefinery follows the path of pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, acetogen fermentation, and acid purification. Estimated capital costs for different scenarios ranged from USD 186 to 245 million. Recovery of GGA using alamine/DIBK was a more economical process and consumed 64% less energy, due to lower steam demand in the recovery distillation columns. The estimated average minimum selling prices of GGA were USD 756 and 877/ton for alamine/DIBK and ethyl acetate scenarios, respectively. This work establishes a feasible and sustainable approach to produce GGA from poplar biomass via fermentation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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14 pages, 2167 KiB  
Article
Production of Lactic Acid from Carob, Banana and Sugarcane Lignocellulose Biomass
by Hassan Azaizeh, Hiba N. Abu Tayeh, Roland Schneider, Augchararat Klongklaew and Joachim Venus
Molecules 2020, 25(13), 2956; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25132956 - 27 Jun 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3538
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural residues is a promising feedstock for lactic acid (LA) production. The aim of the current study was to investigate the production of LA from different lignocellulosic biomass. The LA production from banana peduncles using strain Bacillus coagulans with yeast [...] Read more.
Lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural residues is a promising feedstock for lactic acid (LA) production. The aim of the current study was to investigate the production of LA from different lignocellulosic biomass. The LA production from banana peduncles using strain Bacillus coagulans with yeast extract resulted in 26.6 g LA·L−1, and yield of 0.90 g LA·g−1 sugars. The sugarcane fermentation with yeast extract resulted in 46.5 g LA·L−1, and yield of 0.88 g LA·g−1 sugars. Carob showed that addition of yeast extract resulted in higher productivity of 3.2 g LA·L−1·h−1 compared to without yeast extract where1.95 g LA·L−1·h−1 was obtained. Interestingly, similar LA production was obtained by the end where 54.8 and 51.4 g·L−1 were obtained with and without yeast extract, respectively. A pilot scale of 35 L using carob biomass fermentation without yeast extract resulted in yield of 0.84 g LA·g−1 sugars, and productivity of 2.30 g LA·L−1·h−1 which indicate a very promising process for future industrial production of LA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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14 pages, 4198 KiB  
Article
Preparation of 1-Hydroxy-2,5-hexanedione from HMF by the Combination of Commercial Pd/C and Acetic Acid
by Yanliang Yang, Dexi Yang, Chi Zhang, Min Zheng and Ying Duan
Molecules 2020, 25(11), 2475; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25112475 - 27 May 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3199
Abstract
The development of a simple and durable catalytic system for the production of chemicals from a high concentration of a substrate is important for biomass conversion. In this manuscript, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was converted to 1-hydroxy-2,5-hexanedione (HHD) using the combination of commercial Pd/C and [...] Read more.
The development of a simple and durable catalytic system for the production of chemicals from a high concentration of a substrate is important for biomass conversion. In this manuscript, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was converted to 1-hydroxy-2,5-hexanedione (HHD) using the combination of commercial Pd/C and acetic acid (AcOH) in water. The influence of temperature, H2 pressure, reaction time, catalyst amount and the concentration of AcOH and HMF on this transformation was investigated. A 68% yield of HHD was able to be obtained from HMF at a 13.6 wt% aqueous solution with a 98% conversion of HMF. The resinification of intermediates on the catalyst was characterized to be the main reason for the deactivation of Pd/C. The reusability of the used Pd/C was studied to find that most of the activity could be recovered by being washed in hot tetrahydrofuran. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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14 pages, 1880 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Effect of Water Content and Anion on the Pretreatment of Poplar with Three 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Ionic Liquids
by Florence J. V. Gschwend, Jason P. Hallett and Agnieszka Brandt-Talbot
Molecules 2020, 25(10), 2318; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25102318 - 15 May 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2821
Abstract
We report on the pretreatment of poplar wood with three different 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids, [EMim][OAc], [EMim][MeSO3], and [EMim][HSO4], at varying water contents from 0–40 wt% at 100 °C. The performance was evaluated by observing the lignin and hemicellulose removal, [...] Read more.
We report on the pretreatment of poplar wood with three different 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids, [EMim][OAc], [EMim][MeSO3], and [EMim][HSO4], at varying water contents from 0–40 wt% at 100 °C. The performance was evaluated by observing the lignin and hemicellulose removal, as well as enzymatic saccharification and lignin yield. The mechanism of pretreatment varied between the ionic liquids studied, with the hydrogen sulfate ionic liquid performing delignification and hemicellulose hydrolysis more effectively than the other solvents across the investigated water content range. The acetate ionic liquid produced superior glucose yield at low water contents, while the hydrogen sulfate ionic liquid performed better at higher water contents and produced a recoverable lignin. The methanesulfonate ionic liquid did not introduce significant fractionation or enhancement of saccharification yield under the conditions used. These findings help distinguish the roles of anion hydrogen bonding, solvent acidity, and water content on ionic liquid pretreatment and can aid with anion and water content selections for different applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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17 pages, 2380 KiB  
Article
A Simple Biorefinery Concept to Produce 2G-Lactic Acid from Sugar Beet Pulp (SBP): A High-Value Target Approach to Valorize a Waste Stream
by Regiane Alves de Oliveira, Roland Schneider, Betânia Hoss Lunelli, Carlos Eduardo Vaz Rossell, Rubens Maciel Filho and Joachim Venus
Molecules 2020, 25(9), 2113; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25092113 - 30 Apr 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5223
Abstract
Lactic acid is a high-value molecule with a vast number of applications. Its production in the biorefineries model is a possibility for this sector to aggregate value to its production chain. Thus, this investigation presents a biorefinery model based on the traditional sugar [...] Read more.
Lactic acid is a high-value molecule with a vast number of applications. Its production in the biorefineries model is a possibility for this sector to aggregate value to its production chain. Thus, this investigation presents a biorefinery model based on the traditional sugar beet industry proposing an approach to produce lactic acid from a waste stream. Sugar beet is used to produce sugar and ethanol, and the remaining pulp is sent to animal feed. Using Bacillus coagulans in a continuous fermentation, 2781.01 g of lactic acid was produced from 3916.91 g of sugars from hydrolyzed sugar beet pulp, with a maximum productivity of 18.06 g L−1h−1. Without interfering in the sugar production, ethanol, or lactic acid, it is also possible to produce pectin and phenolic compounds in the biorefinery. The lactic acid produced was purified by a bipolar membrane electrodialysis and the recovery reached 788.80 g/L with 98% w/w purity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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20 pages, 2446 KiB  
Article
Production of Methane, Hydrogen and Ethanol from Secale cereale L. Straw Pretreated with Sulfuric Acid
by Jarosław Domański, Olga Marchut-Mikołajczyk, Weronika Cieciura-Włoch, Piotr Patelski, Urszula Dziekońska-Kubczak, Bartłomiej Januszewicz, Bolin Zhang and Piotr Dziugan
Molecules 2020, 25(4), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25041013 - 24 Feb 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2680
Abstract
The study describes sulfuric acid pretreatment of straw from Secale cereale L. (rye straw) to evaluate the effect of acid concentration and treatment time on the efficiency of biofuel production. The highest ethanol yield occurred after the enzyme treatment at a dose of [...] Read more.
The study describes sulfuric acid pretreatment of straw from Secale cereale L. (rye straw) to evaluate the effect of acid concentration and treatment time on the efficiency of biofuel production. The highest ethanol yield occurred after the enzyme treatment at a dose of 15 filter paper unit (FPU) per gram of rye straw (subjected to chemical hydrolysis with 2% sulfuric acid (SA) at 121 °C for 1 h) during 120 h. Anaerobic digestion of rye straw treated with 10% SA at 121 °C during 1 h allowed to obtain 347.42 L methane/kg volatile solids (VS). Most hydrogen was released during dark fermentation of rye straw after pretreatment of 2% SA, 121 °C, 1 h and 1% SA, 121 °C, 2 h—131.99 and 134.71 L hydrogen/kg VS, respectively. If the rye straw produced in the European Union were processed into methane, hydrogen, ethanol, the annual electricity production in 2018 could reach 9.87 TWh (terawatt-hours), 1.16 TWh, and 0.60 TWh, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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12 pages, 2593 KiB  
Article
Effect of Lignin Content on Cellulolytic Saccharification of Liquid Hot Water Pretreated Sugarcane Bagasse
by Rafaela I. S. Ladeira Ázar, Sidnei Emilio Bordignon-Junior, Craig Laufer, Jordan Specht, Drew Ferrier and Daehwan Kim
Molecules 2020, 25(3), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030623 - 31 Jan 2020
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 3385
Abstract
Lignin contributes to the rigid structure of the plant cell wall and is partially responsible for the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic materials to enzymatic digestion. Overcoming this recalcitrance is one the most critical issues in a sugar-flat form process. This study addresses the effect [...] Read more.
Lignin contributes to the rigid structure of the plant cell wall and is partially responsible for the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic materials to enzymatic digestion. Overcoming this recalcitrance is one the most critical issues in a sugar-flat form process. This study addresses the effect of low lignin sugarcane bagasse on enzymatic hydrolysis after liquid hot water pretreatment at 190 °C and 20 min (severity factor: 3.95). The hydrolysis of bagasse from a sugarcane line selected for a relatively low lignin content, gave an 89.7% yield of cellulose conversion to glucose at 40 FPU/g glucan versus a 68.3% yield from a comparably treated bagasse from the high lignin bred line. A lower enzyme loading of 5 FPU/g glucan (equivalent to 3.2 FPU/g total solids) resulted in 31.4% and 21.9% conversion yields, respectively, for low and high lignin samples, suggesting the significance of lignin content in the saccharification process. Further increases in the enzymatic conversion of cellulose to glucose were achieved when the bagasse sample was pre-incubated with a lignin blocking agent, e.g., bovine serum albumin (50 mg BSA/g glucan) at 50 °C for 1 h prior to an actual saccharification. In this work, we have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in lignin content can result in considerably increased sugar production, which supports the dissimilarity of bagasse lignin content and its effects on cellulose digestibility. The increased glucose yields with the addition of BSA helped to decrease the inhibition of non-productive absorption of cellulose enzymes onto lignin and solid residual lignin fractions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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17 pages, 1323 KiB  
Article
Study on the Sequential Combination of Bioethanol and Biogas Production from Corn Straw
by Katarzyna Kotarska, Wojciech Dziemianowicz and Anna Świerczyńska
Molecules 2019, 24(24), 4558; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24244558 - 12 Dec 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 2950
Abstract
The objective of this study was to obtain two types of fuels, i.e., bioethanol and biogas, in a sequential combination of biochemical processes from lignocellulosic biomass (corn straw). Waste from the agricultural sector containing lignocellulose structures was used to obtain bioethanol, while the [...] Read more.
The objective of this study was to obtain two types of fuels, i.e., bioethanol and biogas, in a sequential combination of biochemical processes from lignocellulosic biomass (corn straw). Waste from the agricultural sector containing lignocellulose structures was used to obtain bioethanol, while the post-fermentation (cellulose stillage) residue obtained from ethanol fermentation was a raw material for the production of high-power biogas in the methane fermentation process. The studies on obtaining ethanol from lignocellulosic substrate were based on the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) method, which is a simultaneous hydrolysis of enzymatic cellulose and fermentation of the obtained sugars. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (D-2) in the form of yeast cream was used for bioethanol production. The yeast strain D-2 originated from the collection of the Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology. Volatile compounds identified in the distillates were measured using gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). CH4 and CO2 contained in the biogas were analyzed using a gas chromatograph in isothermal conditions, equipped with thermal conductivity detector (katharometer) with incandescent fiber. Our results show that simultaneous saccharification and fermentation enables production of bioethanol from agricultural residues with management of cellulose stillage in the methane fermentation process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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Review

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23 pages, 2623 KiB  
Review
Bioethanol Production by Enzymatic Hydrolysis from Different Lignocellulosic Sources
by Katja Vasić, Željko Knez and Maja Leitgeb
Molecules 2021, 26(3), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030753 - 01 Feb 2021
Cited by 118 | Viewed by 13646
Abstract
As the need for non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels has increased during the last few decades, the search for sustainable and renewable alternative sources has gained growing interest. Enzymatic hydrolysis in bioethanol production presents an important step, where sugars that are fermented [...] Read more.
As the need for non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels has increased during the last few decades, the search for sustainable and renewable alternative sources has gained growing interest. Enzymatic hydrolysis in bioethanol production presents an important step, where sugars that are fermented are obtained in the final fermentation process. In the process of enzymatic hydrolysis, more and more new effective enzymes are being researched to ensure a more cost-effective process. There are many different enzyme strategies implemented in hydrolysis protocols, where different lignocellulosic biomass, such as wood feedstocks, different agricultural wastes, and marine algae are being used as substrates for an efficient bioethanol production. This review investigates the very recent enzymatic hydrolysis pathways in bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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22 pages, 5293 KiB  
Review
Mechanochemical and Size Reduction Machines for Biorefining
by Igor Lomovskiy, Aleksey Bychkov, Oleg Lomovsky and Tatiana Skripkina
Molecules 2020, 25(22), 5345; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225345 - 16 Nov 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4477
Abstract
In recent years, we have witnessed an increasing interest in the application of mechanochemical methods for processing materials in biomass refining techniques. Grinding and mechanical pretreatment are very popular methods utilized to enhance the reactivity of polymers and plant raw materials; however, the [...] Read more.
In recent years, we have witnessed an increasing interest in the application of mechanochemical methods for processing materials in biomass refining techniques. Grinding and mechanical pretreatment are very popular methods utilized to enhance the reactivity of polymers and plant raw materials; however, the choice of devices and their modes of action is often performed through trial and error. An inadequate choice of equipment often results in inefficient grinding, low reactivity of the product, excess energy expenditure, and significant wear of the equipment. In the present review, modern equipment employing various types of mechanical impacts, which show the highest promise for mechanochemical pretreatment of plant raw materials, is examined and compared—disc mills, attritors and bead mills, ball mills, planetary mills, vibration and vibrocentrifugal mills, roller and centrifugal roller mills, extruders, hammer mills, knife mills, pin mills, disintegrators, and jet mills. The properly chosen type of mechanochemical activation (and equipment) allows an energetically and economically sound enhancement of the reactivity of solid-phase polymers by increasing the effective surface area accessible to reagents, reducing the amount of crystalline regions and the diffusion coefficient, disordering the supramolecular structure of the material, and mechanochemically reacting with the target substances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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21 pages, 505 KiB  
Review
Lignocellulosic Biomass Fractionation by Mineral Acids and Resulting Extract Purification Processes: Conditions, Yields, and Purities
by Vincent Oriez, Jérôme Peydecastaing and Pierre-Yves Pontalier
Molecules 2019, 24(23), 4273; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234273 - 23 Nov 2019
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5411
Abstract
Fractionation of lignocellulose is a fundamental step in the valorization of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin to produce various sustainable fuels and chemicals. Mineral acid fractionation is one of the most applied process and leads to the solubilization and hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses, [...] Read more.
Fractionation of lignocellulose is a fundamental step in the valorization of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin to produce various sustainable fuels and chemicals. Mineral acid fractionation is one of the most applied process and leads to the solubilization and hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses, whereas most of the lignin remains insoluble and can be separated from the extract. The obtained monomeric sugars in the acid extract are in solution with salts, sugar degradation products, and phenolic molecules. Downstream processing is required to purify the sugars and further valorize them into fuels or chemicals with the use of chemical or biochemical reactions. This purification step also allows the recycling of the mineral acid and the valorization of the sugar degradation products and the co-extracted phenolic molecules, adding value to the whole biorefinery scheme. Many purification techniques have been studied, providing several options in terms of yields, purities, and cost of the process. This review presents the conditions used for the mineral acid fractionation step and a wide variety of purification techniques applied on the obtained hydrolysate, with a focus on the associated yields and purities. Values from the literature are expressed in a standard way in order to simplify comparison between the different processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignocellulosic Biomass to Biofuels and Biochemicals)
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