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Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 23371

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Prof. Dr. Liyan Zhao

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Guest Editor

College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
Interests: edible fungi; flavor chemistry; food processing; quality control

Dr. Xiao Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
Interests: flavor chemistry; flavor perception; sensory evaluation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Flavor determines food acceptability by consumers and has been a topic of great interest at the center of food research. Molecule decoding of key flavor compounds from native or processed foods is an essential component of flavor research, supported by many modern analytical techniques such as HPLC-MS and GC-MS. With the rapid advances of omics and sensory-guided approaches, flavoromics and sensomics have paved the way for the comprehensive identification of flavor molecules and the understanding of relationships between flavor compounds and resulting sensory properties. Moreover, food flavor perception is a multisensory process involving complex cross-modal interactions between chemesthesis, odor, and taste. The presence of major food ingredients such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates also interact with flavor molecules, which further affects the release or retention of aroma compounds, thus influencing food flavor perception. A better knowledge of flavor-related interactions and perception in food or during food consumption could contribute to the optimization of their use to develop both successful novel food products and strategies for promoting food quality.

Original research papers and review articles related but not limited to the following topics are welcomed:

Identification of volatile compounds from native or processed foods
Characterization of key aroma/taste-active compounds
Analytical techniques for flavor molecular decoding
Flavor-food ingredient interactions
Interactions between sensory-active compounds and food matrix
Flavor release/retention from food matrices
Perceptual interactions and their influences on food flavor perception (olfactory-gustatory interactions, oral-somatosensory-, visual-, and auditory-involved multisensory flavor perception)
Food oral processing
Food flavor perception

Prof. Dr. Liyan Zhao
Dr. Xiao Chen
Guest Editors

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Keywords

volatile organic compounds from native or processed food
flavor molecular decoding
flavor release/retention
flavor quality
flavor-food ingredient interactions
flavor perception
multisensory integration
food flavor analysis

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 9892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Characteristics and Volatile Components of Chili Oil Prepared from the Combination of Shuanla and Erjingtiao Peppers

by Fang Yang, Simin Yao, Haibin Yuan, Can Yuan and Hongfeng Jia

Molecules 2024, 29(23), 5767; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235767 - 6 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1412

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the influence of varying weight ratios of Shuanla and Erjingtiao peppers (10:0, 8:2, 6:4, 5:5, 4:6, 2:8, and 0:10, corresponding to samples PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF, and PG, respectively) on the sensory attributes, chromatism, acid values (AVs), peroxide values (POVs), capsaicinoids, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of seven chili oil samples. GC–IMS was employed to detect the VOCs of the chili oil samples, which were subsequently analyzed using multivariate statistical methods. The results revealed significant differences in pungency among the samples, with the PA sample exhibiting the strongest pungency. The PG sample demonstrated the highest values for a*, b*, and C*, while the PA sample displayed the highest L* and h*. The AVs of seven samples ranged from 0.490 ± 0.005 to 1.727 ± 0.015 mg/g. The POVs of the chili oil samples, ranging from 0.094 ± 0.000 to 0.127 ± 0.002 g/100 g, were significantly lower than those of extra virgin olive oil, 0.183 ± 0.001 g/100 g. The contents of capsaicinoids ranged from 15.26 ± 0.07 g/kg in the PA sample to 0.38 ± 0.00 g/kg in the PG sample (p < 0.05). Additionally, 56 volatile flavor substances were identified, and 10 key flavor compounds (ROAV ≥ 1) were screened among them. Multivariate data analysis via OPLS-DA indicated that 20 VOCs (VIP > 1) could serve as flavor markers in a clustering heat map to differentiate among the seven chili oil varieties. The findings of this study provide a valuable reference for the promotion of Shuanla and Erjingtiao peppers in chili oil production and the development of specific flavor profiles in chili oil to cater to diverse consumer preferences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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19 pages, 2706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Impacts of Germination on the Volatile and Fatty Acid Profile of Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) Seeds

by Wellington S. Oliveira, Qianqian Chen, Dana Edleman, George A. Annor and Fernanda F. G. Dias

Molecules 2024, 29(17), 4268; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174268 - 9 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1598

Abstract

Intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) is a promising perennial grain explored for mainstream food applications. This study investigated the effects of different germination temperatures (10, 15, and 20 °C) and durations (2, 4, and 6 days) on IWG’s volatile and fatty acid (FA) profiles. A method using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) was optimized through response surface design to extract the volatile compounds, achieving ideal extraction conditions at 60 °C for 55 min. Multiple headspace extraction (MHE) was used for volatile compound quantification. Fifty-eight compounds were identified and quantified in IWG flour, mainly alcohols, aldehydes, hydrocarbons, terpenes, esters, organic acids, and ketones. The main FAs found were linoleic acid (C18:2), oleic acid (C18:1), palmitic acid (C16:0), and linolenic acid (C18:3). Principal component analysis showed a direct correlation between volatile oxidation products and FA composition. Germination at 15 °C for 6 days led to a reduced presence of aldehydes and alcohols such as nonanal and 1-pentanol. Therefore, optimized germination was successful in reducing the presence of potential off-odor compounds. This study provides valuable insights into the effects of germination on IWG flour, showing a way for its broader use in food applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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22 pages, 2048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Optimization Method for Determination of the Strawberries’ Aroma Profile

by Iva Palac Bešlić, Martina Ivešić, Ivana Mandić Andačić, Danijela Bursać Kovačević, Irena Žuntar, Anica Bebek Markovinović, Fabijan Oštarić and Adela Krivohlavek

Molecules 2024, 29(14), 3441; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29143441 - 22 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1329

Abstract

The strawberry (genus Fragaria) is a plant from the rose family (Rosaceae). As the fruits are likely to be picked mechanically, they are grown close to consumption centers. The aim of this work was to develop a suitable method for detecting as many molecules as possible in order to be able to distinguish between different strawberry cultivars and geographical origins in the future. Whole strawberries of the “Albion” cultivar, grown in the Jagodica Purgerica region of Zagreb, were used. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in SCAN mode was used to analyze the aroma profile and to determine the proportion of individual components. The samples were prepared and analyzed using the solid-phase microextraction method (SPME). The impact of SPME fiber selection and GC column type was investigated, as well as sample weight, ionic strength, agitation temperature, and sampling time. A higher ionic strength was achieved by adding a 20% NaCl solution to the sample. The aroma profile of the studied strawberry cultivar consisted of furanone, esters, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids. Optimal results were achieved by adjusting the ionic strength during 15 min of extraction and incubation. The individual compounds were identified using NIST, Wiley libraries, and the “area normalization” method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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18 pages, 4450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Flavor and Sensory Quality of Coffee Pulp Wines

by Rongsuo Hu, Fei Xu, Liyan Zhao, Wenjiang Dong, Xingyuan Xiao and Xiao Chen

Molecules 2024, 29(13), 3060; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29133060 - 27 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1862

Abstract

Coffee pulp wines were produced through the mixed fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the flavor and sensory characteristics were comparatively evaluated. A total of 87 volatile components were identified from five coffee pulp wines, of which 68 were present in all samples, accounting for over 99% of the total concentration. The sample fermented contained significantly higher levels of volatile metabolites (56.80 mg/g). Alcohols (22 species) and esters (26 species) were the main flavor components, with the contents accounting for 56.45 ± 3.93% and 31.18 ± 4.24%, respectively, of the total. Furthermore, 14 characteristic components were identified as potential odor-active compounds, contributing to sweet and floral apple brandy flavor. Although the characteristic components are similar, the difference in the content makes the overall sensory evaluation of the samples different. The samples formed by fermentation of four strains, which obtained the highest score (86.46 ± 0.36) in sensory evaluation, were further interpreted and demonstrated through the Mantel test. The results of the component analysis were effectively distinguished by OPLS-DA and PCA, and this validation was supported by sensory evaluation. The research results provided a technical reference for the production of coffee pulp wines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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16 pages, 5528 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Cooking Methods on the Aroma and Taste of Chicken Broth

by Can Yuan, Chengjian Xu, Lilan Chen, Jun Yang, Mingfeng Qiao and Zhoulin Wu

Molecules 2024, 29(7), 1532; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29071532 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2469

Abstract

A single combi oven, known for its versatility, is an excellent choice for a variety of chicken soup preparations. However, the impact of universal steam ovens on the flavor quality of chicken soup remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the impact of different cooking methods on the aroma and taste of chicken soup. Three cooking methods with various stewing times were compared: ceramic pot (CP), electric pressure cooker (EPC), and combi oven (CO). Analyses were conducted using electron-nose, electron-tongue, gas chromatography–ion mobility spectrometry (GC–IMS), automatic amino acid analysis, and chemometric methods. A total of 14 amino acids, including significant umami contributors, were identified. The taste components of CP and CO chicken soups were relatively similar. In total, 39 volatile aroma compounds, predominantly aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols, were identified. Aldehydes were the most abundant compounds, and 23 key aroma compounds were identified. Pearson’s correlation analyses revealed distinct correlations between various amino acids (e.g., glutamic acid and serine) and specific volatile compounds. The aroma compounds from the CP and CO samples showed similarities. The results of this study provide a reference for the application of one-touch cooking of chicken soup in versatile steam ovens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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17 pages, 5547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Effect of Milk Fat on Fermented Milk Flavor Based on Gas Chromatography–Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC-IMS) and Multivariate Statistical Analysis

by Chunlei Tan, Yang Tian, Liang Tao, Jing Xie, Mingming Wang, Feng Zhang, Zhijin Yu, Jun Sheng and Cunchao Zhao

Molecules 2024, 29(5), 1099; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29051099 - 29 Feb 2024

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2273

Abstract

Milk fat is a premium nutritional health product, yet there is a lack of high-fat dairy products for daily consumption in the current market. This study investigated the influence of different milk fat contents on the physicochemical and textural properties of fermented milk. The research revealed that an increase in milkfat content significantly improved the water-holding capacity, syneresis, color, hardness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness of fermented milk, while showing minimal changes in pH and total titratable acidity. Response surface analysis indicated that fermented milk with 25% milk fat, 2.5% inoculum, a fermentation time of 16 h, and a fermentation temperature of 30 °C exhibited the highest overall acceptability. Using GC-IMS technology, 36 volatile compounds were identified, with an increase in milk fat content leading to elevated levels of ketone compounds, and 14 compounds were defined as key aroma compounds (ROAV > 1). Electronic nose distinguished samples with different milk fat contents. The results demonstrate that an increase in milk fat content enhances the physicochemical and flavor attributes of fermented milk. This work provides theoretical references for the production and development of high-fat fermented milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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11 pages, 233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Yeast Extract as a Flavor Enhancer and Masking Agent in Sodium-Reduced Marinated Shrimp

by Evren Burcu Şen Yılmaz

Molecules 2024, 29(1), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29010182 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3823

Abstract

Deepwater pink shrimp (Parapenaus longirostris) has a significantly high catch yield and is a highly important food source for human nutrition in terms of its nutritional value. The reduction of salt content in seafood products while preserving taste poses a significant challenge. The aim of this study is to reduce the NaCl ratio used in the shrimp marination process by substituting it with KCl and masking the resulting bitterness from KCl using natural flavor enhancers, such as yeast extracts. The marinated shrimp were prepared using 50% KCl instead of 50% NaCl. In order to mask the bitter taste caused by KCl and enhance the flavor, two different types of yeast extracts obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae were utilized in the formulation. Nutritional composition, Na and K contents, amino acid composition, color measurement, bacteriological quality, pH changes, and sensory evaluations were conducted to assess the impact of salt reduction and yeast extracts on the sensory, chemical, and physical attributes of the products. L-glutamic acid, L-alanine, L-aspartic acid, L-leucine, L-valine, and L-lysine were found to be higher in samples with Levex Terra yeast extract. Despite a 50% reduction in NaCl content, the addition of yeast extract led to an increase in the umami taste due to the elevation of amino acids present. Yeast extracts can offer a promising solution for enhancing the sensory qualities of seafood products with reduced salt content by conducting more detailed sensory development examinations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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16 pages, 1556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Chemical Differences in Cheddar Cheese Based on Maturity Level and Manufacturer Using Vibrational Spectroscopy and Chemometrics

by Gerson R. Dewantier, Peter J. Torley and Ewan W. Blanch

Molecules 2023, 28(24), 8051; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28248051 - 12 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1826

Abstract

Cheese is a nutritious dairy product and a valuable commodity. Internationally, cheddar cheese is produced and consumed in large quantities, and it is the main cheese variety that is exported from Australia. Despite its importance, the analytical methods to that are used to determine cheese quality rely on traditional approaches that require time, are invasive, and which involve potentially hazardous chemicals. In contrast, spectroscopic techniques can rapidly provide molecular information and are non-destructive, fast, and chemical-free methods. Combined with partner recognition methods (chemometrics), they can identify small changes in the composition or condition of cheeses. In this work, we combined FTIR and Raman spectroscopies with principal component analysis (PCA) to investigate the effects of aging in commercial cheddar cheeses. Changes in the amide I and II bands were the main spectral characteristics responsible for classifying commercial cheddar cheeses based on the ripening time and manufacturer using FTIR, and bands from lipids, including β’-polymorph of fat crystals, were more clearly determined through changes in the Raman spectra. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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16 pages, 5741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fingerprint Analysis of Volatile Flavor Compounds in Crassostrea gigas of Different Ploidy and Gender under High-Temperature Incubation

by Youmei Sun, Jingjing Fu, Enshuo Zhang, Luyao Dong, Xuebo Cui, Yanan Sun, Zhizhong Wang, Yanwei Feng, Bin Li, Xiaohui Xu, Qihao Luo, Weijun Wang and Jianmin Yang

Molecules 2023, 28(19), 6857; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28196857 - 28 Sep 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1387

Abstract

In this study, diploid, triploid, and tetraploid Crassostrea gigas samples were subjected to gas chromatography and ion mobility (GC-IMS) to identify and analyze volatile compounds and flavor fingerprints under conditions of high-temperature incubation. The GC-IMS technology identified a total of 54 volatile components in C. gigas. The contents of 1-octen-3-ol, butyl pentanoate, p-methyl anisole, and 2-methyl-2-hepten-6-one in male oysters were significantly higher than in females, while the contents of phenylacetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2-ethylfuran, and 2,4-hexadienal in female oysters were significantly higher than in males. The contents of non-3-en-2-one-M and 1-pentanol in diploids were significantly higher than in triploids and tetraploids, while the content of 2,4-hexadienal in tetraploids was significantly higher than in diploids and tetraploids. The contents of ethyl acetate, ethyl-2-butenoate, and butanal in tetraploids were significantly higher than those in diploids and triploids. The results of a principal components analysis showed that different samples were relatively independently clustered, allowing the ability to distinguish different oyster samples. The chemical fingerprints of volatile compounds of C. gigas with different ploidy and gender under high-temperature incubation were established, and the volatile substance contours of C. gigas were visualized. The results provide a reference for distinguishing the ploidy and gender of C. gigas under conditions of high-temperature incubation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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18 pages, 3512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Discrimination of Volatile Compounds in Chilled Tan Mutton Meat during Storage Using HiSorb-TD-GC-MS and E-Nose

by Ningxia Bu, Qi Yang, Juan Chen, Yongqin Li and Dunhua Liu

Molecules 2023, 28(13), 4993; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28134993 - 25 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2196

Abstract

Chilled Tan mutton is currently the mainstream of Tan mutton production and consumption in China, but the reports on chilled meat quality evaluation and shelf-life discrimination by volatiles are limited. This study aimed to investigate the changes of volatile compounds in chilled Tan mutton at four storage stages (1d, 3d, 5d, 7d) in order to differentiate the various storage stages. An analysis protocol was established for the characterization and discrimination of the volatiles in chilled Tan mutton based on high capacity sorptive extraction-thermal desorption-gas coupled with chromatography-mass spectrometry (HiSorb-TD-GC-MS), electronic nose (E-nose), and multivariate statistical analysis. A total of 96 volatile compounds were identified by HiSorb-TD-GC-MS, in which six compounds with relative odor activity value >1 were screened as the key characteristic volatiles in chilled Tan mutton. Four storage stages were discriminated by partial least squares discriminant analysis, and nine differential volatile compounds showed a variable importance for the projection score >1, including octanoic acid, methyl ester, decanoic acid, methyl ester, acetic acid, heptanoic acid, methyl ester, propanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-, methyl ester, (ñ)-, hexanoic acid, propanoic acid, butanoic acid, and nonanoic acid. With the volcano plot analysis, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, was the common volatile marker candidate to discriminate chilled stages of Tan mutton. Meanwhile, E-nose could discriminate chilled Tan mutton at different storage stages rapidly and efficiently using linear discriminant analysis. Furthermore, E-nose sensors could obtain comprehensive volatile profile information, especially in esters, acids, and alcohols, which could confirm the potential of E-nose for meat odor recognition. Thus, this analysis protocol could characterize and discriminate the volatiles in chilled Tan mutton during storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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16 pages, 4014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Volatile Compounds and Flavor Fingerprint Using Gas Chromatography–Ion Mobility Spectrometry (GC-IMS) on Crassostrea gigas with Different Ploidy and Gender

by Jingjing Fu, Youmei Sun, Mingxian Cui, Enshuo Zhang, Luyao Dong, Yanchun Wang, Weijun Wang, Zan Li and Jianmin Yang

Molecules 2023, 28(11), 4475; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28114475 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2111

Abstract

In this study, GC-IMS was used to analyze the volatile component and flavor profiles of Crassostrea gigas individuals of different ploidy and gender. Principal component analysis was used to explore overall differences in flavor profiles, and a total of 54 volatile compounds were identified. The total volatile flavor contents in the edible parts of tetraploid oysters were significantly higher than in diploid and triploid oysters. The concentrations of ethyl (E)-2-butenoate and 1-penten-3-ol were significantly higher in triploid oysters than in diploid and tetraploid oysters. In addition, the volatile compounds propanoic acid, ethyl propanoate, 1-butanol, butanal, and 2-ethyl furan were significantly higher in females than in males. The volatile compounds p-methyl anisole, 3-octanone, 3-octanone, and (E)-2-heptenal were present in higher levels in male than in female oysters. Overall, different ploidy and gender of oysters are connected with different sensory characteristics, providing new insights for understanding the flavor characteristics of oysters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Flavor: Molecular Decoding, Multimodal Interaction and Perception)

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