Microwave

Continuous-wave magnetrons continue to offer the highest efficiency, lowest cost per watt, and greatest compactness among high-power microwave sources, making them attractive for industrial, scientific, and defense applications. Emerging missions, particularly space solar power systems, industrial microwave heating, and accelerators, demand significantly enhanced performance metrics, including high DC-to-RF efficiency, thermal stability, ultra-low phase noise, and precise phase controllability for coherent operation. To satisfy the critical requirement for high power, low-cost microwave sources with high spectral purity, extensive research has focused on injection-locking techniques, external phase/frequency modulation methods, and large-scale coherent power combining. This paper reviews the fundamental characteristics of CW magnetrons, recent advances in injection-locked magnetron transmitters, power-combining systems employing multiple injection-locked magnetrons, magnetron-based phased-array systems, and emerging applications. Finally, the challenges and promising development directions for next-generation CW magnetrons are discussed. Full article

This work presents a fully integrated, two-stage, deep class-AB power amplifier (PA) operating at a center frequency of 60 GHz. High efficiency and suppression of third-order intermodulation products are targeted, achieving improved linearity compared to reported state-of-the-art designs. A current combining architecture is also employed to enhance the output power capability. The PA is designed in a 22 nm FD-SOI CMOS technology and is optimized through a complete schematic-to-layout design flow. Post-layout simulations indicate that the PA achieves a peak power-added efficiency (PAE) of 28%, a saturated output power ($P_{sat}$) of 20.2 dBm, and a maximum large-signal gain ($G_{max}$) of 19.6 dB at 60 GHz, evaluated at an operating temperature of 60 °C. The design maintains high linearity across the targeted output power range, exhibiting effective suppression of third-order intermodulation distortion (IMD3), which enhances its suitability for spectrally efficient modulation schemes. Full article

Accurate user positioning in 6G networks is essential for next-generation mobile services. However, classical approaches such as time-difference-of-arrival (TDoA) remain vulnerable to dense multipath and NLoS conditions commonly found in indoor and industrial environments. This paper proposes an AI-driven RF fingerprinting framework that leverages uplink channel state information (CSI) to achieve robust and privacy-preserving 2D localization. A lightweight convolutional neural network (CNN) extracts location-specific spectral–spatial fingerprints from CSI tensors, while a federated learning (FL) scheme enables distributed training across multiple gNBs without sharing raw channel data. The proposed integration of CSI tensor processing with FL and structured pruning is introduced as a novel solution for practical 6G edge positioning. To further reduce latency and communication costs, a structured pruning mechanism compresses the model by 40–60%, lowering the memory footprint with negligible accuracy loss. A performance evaluation in 3GPP-compliant indoor factory scenarios indicates a median positioning error below 1 m for over 90% of cases, significantly outperforming TDoA. Moreover, the compressed FL model reduces the FL communication load by ~38% and accelerates local training, establishing an efficient, secure, and deployment-ready positioning solution for 6G networks. Full article

Microwave heating technology has gained extensive application in various fields, including food processing and drying, material synthesis, and waste treatment, due to its advantages of high efficiency, selectivity, and rapid response. However, the inherent non-uniform electromagnetic field distribution within metallic microwave cavities leads to uneven heating. This issue severely constrains the large-scale industrial application of microwave heating, particularly its extension into high-precision, high-value-added industrial sectors like 3D printing, curing, and microwave plasma micro/nano-fabrication. To address this challenge, extensive research efforts have been undertaken in both academia and industry, focusing on improving microwave heating uniformity, resulting in the proposal of various methods. This review summarizes these methods for enhancing microwave heating uniformity and specifically outlines recent research progress on novel techniques based on artificial electromagnetic surfaces. It aims to offer valuable references and guidance for the broader application of microwave heating technology. Full article

This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in radio-frequency (RF) multifunctional components with integrated filtering characteristics, including tunable filtering attenuators, filtering power dividers, filtering couplers, and filtering Butler matrices, all of which play critical roles in wireless communication systems. With the increasing demand for miniaturization, integration, and low-loss performance in RF front-ends, multifunctional components with filtering characteristics have become essential. This review first introduces tunable attenuators and filtering attenuators based on various technologies such as PIN diodes, graphene-based structures, and RF-MEMS switches, and also analyzes their advantages, limitations, and performance. Then, we discuss filtering power dividers developed from Wilkinson structures, three-line coupled structures, resonator-based coupling matrix methods, and SSPP-waveguide hybrids. Furthermore, filtering couplers and filtering Butler matrices are reviewed, highlighting their capability to simultaneously achieve amplitude and phase control, making them suitable for multi-beam antenna feeding networks. Finally, a brief conclusion is summarized. Future research directions, such as hybrid technologies, novel materials, broadband and multi-band designs, and antenna-matrix co-design, are suggested to further enhance the performance and practicality of multifunctional RF components for next-generation wireless communication systems. Full article

In this study, the microwave heating efficiency of a water body is investigated with different shape factors. In particular, the same water volume was deposited in cylindrical containers with different diameters. Here, “shape factor” refers to the ratio between the surface fluid layer, which strongly absorbs microwave energy, and the inner layer, which is heated largely via conduction. For a liquid in a cylindrical container, the shape factor is characterised as the ratio between the depth and diameter of the air/water surface area. The heating efficiency is characterised by relating the energy absorbed in the outer fluid layer with the energy gained in the bulk and monitoring the temperature in the fluid bulk at the point that the outer layer commences boiling. A correlation equation for the uniformity of the sample heating (with stirring) provided a simple link between the physical factors and microwave (MW) parameters. It was found that a depth/diameter ratio approaching 1:1 provided the most uniform heating. The correlations between the fitting parameters and physical conditions provide a simple yet effective method to characterise the thermal homogeneity of microwave heating that can assist with practical parameterisation of the design of microwave reactors. Full article

In this study, we investigate the dominant electromagnetic wave absorption mechanism–ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) loss versus quarter-wave cancellation in a novel PVDF-based polymer composite embedded with carbonaceous nanostructures incorporating FeCoCr ternary alloy. The majority of the nanoparticles are embedded at the terminal ends of the carbon nanotubes, while a small fraction exists as isolated core–shell, carbon-coated spherical particles. Overall, the synthesized material predominantly exhibits a nanotubular carbon morphology. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) confirms that the encapsulated nanoparticles are quasi-spherical in shape, with an average size ranging from approximately 25 to 40 nm. The polymeric composite was synthesized via solution casting, ensuring homogenous dispersion of filler constituent. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding performance and reflection loss characteristics were evaluated in the X-band frequency range. Experimental results reveal a significant reflection loss exceeding −20 dB at a matching thickness of 2.5 mm, with peak absorption shifting across frequencies with thickness variation. The comparative analysis, supported by quarter-wave theory and FMR resonance conditions, indicates that the absorption mechanism transitions between magnetic resonance and interference-based cancellation depending on the material configuration and thickness. This work provides experimental validation of loss mechanism dominance in magnetic alloy/polymer composites and proposes design principles for tailoring broadband microwave absorbers. Full article

This paper presents a highly linear one-bit loaded-line phase shifter that leverages PIN diodes in combination with a coupler-based impedance transformer. The proposed phase shifter adopts a loaded-line topology, where PIN diodes are configured in a parallel-to-ground arrangement to improve linearity performance. To further enhance linearity, a coupler-based impedance transformer is employed to reduce the impedance seen by each PIN diode, thereby minimizing nonlinear behavior. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this design, a one-bit digital phase shifter is developed, simulated, and fabricated to achieve a 45-degree phase shift at 2 GHz. Experimental measurements confirm an input third-order intercept point (IIP3) exceeding 100 dBm under a range of test conditions, validating the proposed architecture’s linearity advantages. Full article

There is currently an effort to scale up sol–gel nanomaterials without compromising quality, and microwave heating can pave the way for this due to its heating efficiency, resulting in a fast and homogeneous process. In this work, the sol–gel synthesis of transition metal aerogels, specifically iron-based aerogels, is studied using a microwave-assisted sol–gel methodology in an open-system multimode device as a potential route to scale-up production. Different approaches were tested to evaluate the best way to increase yield per batch, with different vessel shapes and volumes. It is shown that the shape and size of the vessel can be determinant in the interaction with microwaves and, thus, in the heating process, influencing the sol–gel reactions and the characteristics and homogeneity of the obtained nanomaterials. It has been found that a wide vessel is preferable to a tall and narrow one since the heating process is more homogeneous in the former and the sol–gel and cross-linking reactions take place earlier, which improves the mechanical properties of the final nanomaterial. For mass production of nanomaterials, the interaction of the reagents with the microwave field must be considered, and this depends not only on their nature but also on their volume, shape, and arrangement inside the cavity. Full article

The advancement of microwave wireless power transfer technology has positioned low-power rectennas as a research hotspot. This paper systematically reviews core technological progress in low-power rectennas, focusing on innovations in rectifier circuit topologies, nonlinear device models, antenna array optimization, and efficiency enhancement strategies. Current technical bottlenecks and future application directions are analyzed, providing theoretical references for space solar power stations, IoTs, and related fields. Full article

We propose a new ultra-wideband antipodal Vivaldi antenna design based on the Klopfenstein curve, incorporating exponential slots, horns, and apertures to improve the antenna’s return loss and increase its gain in high-frequency bands. The antenna achieves high gain and wide bandwidth characteristics, with measured −10 dB bandwidth ranging from 2 GHz to 20 GHz, maximum gain of 14 dBi, and gain exceeding 10 dBi from 3.5 GHz to 14 GHz. Full article

It is well known that two pieces of electrical conductors behave as a waveguide when they are employed to transmit AC signals. Some experimental and analytical studies are reported in this paper to demonstrate that two pieces of electrical conductors also behave as a waveguide when they are employed to transmit DC signals in practice. Specifically, the speed of wave propagation is measured in the experiments, and the analytical studies are based on the theory of transmission line. Full article

This work proposes an all-quartz integrated lens antenna for the first time. The antenna feed and lens materials are both made of quartz. The antenna is designed to work at 26 GHz and has the advantages of small size and reduced surface wave loss. Two antennas, a hemispheric lens and an extended hemispheric lens, are demonstrated. The hemispheric lens has an area of 30 × 30 mm² and a height of 16 mm, while the extended hemispheric lens, with the same area, has a height of 26 mm. The measured peak gain of the extended hemispheric integrated lens antenna is 15.49 dBi, and the simulated peak gain is 17.68 dBi. The electric-field distribution was analyzed, and two hemispheric lens and extended hemispheric lens antennas of the same size were designed on PCB substrate for comparative analysis. The measured results validate the impact of the surface wave effect on the gain of the lens antenna proposed in this study. Full article