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Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials
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Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Physics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2023) | Viewed by 35496

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ilona Jastrzębska

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow MP, Poland
Interests: refractory materials; structure; microstructure; design; corrosion; high-temperature resistance; mechanical properties; thermomechanical properties; Artificial Intelligence; machine learning
Prof. Dr. Jacek Szczerba

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow MP, Poland
Interests: refractory raw materials; design of refractory materials; corrosion; structure; microstructure; thermomechanical behavior; formed refractories; monolithic refractories; recycling; wear; Artificial Intelligence; AI; machine learning; ML; algorithms; neuron networks

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Refractory materials are strategic materials taking into account the fact that they enable the production of strategic building materials, such as steel, cement, or glass. Additionally, they ensure safe human work and eco-friendliness. Extensive research into their properties, including corrosion resistance, mechanical properties or thermal behavior, is critical in the development of new types of long-life and ecologic materials as well as in enhancing the properties of existing ones. At present, Artificial Intelligence (AI) contributes to facilitating R&D and industrial processes, including the refractory industry, e.g., in predicting selected material properties or wear of refractory lining. Thus, exploring this cutting-edge technology has great potential. AI can provide solutions to numerous problems which are too complicated to be resolved by a human due to sophisticated relations and big data. This issue invites a broad group of researchers who test and assess primary and secondary refractory raw materials, design or investigate properties of both formed and monolithic refractory materials with the intention to increase their lifetime or enhance positive or neutral environmental character, including those applying AI technology.

Dr. Ilona Jastrzębska
Prof. Dr. Jacek Szczerba
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • refractory raw materials
  • design of refractory materials
  • corrosion
  • structure
  • microstructure
  • thermomechanical behavior
  • formed refractories
  • monolithic refractories
  • recycling
  • wear
  • Artificial Intelligence
  • AI
  • machine learning
  • ML

Published Papers (19 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 181 KiB  
Editorial
Design, Manufacturing and Properties of Refractory Materials
by Ilona Jastrzębska and Jacek Szczerba
Materials 2024, 17(7), 1673; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17071673 - 05 Apr 2024
Viewed by 372
Abstract
With pleasure, we present this Special Issue of Materials, titled “Design, Manufacturing and Properties of Refractory Materials” [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

27 pages, 11535 KiB  
Article
Traditional vs. Automated Computer Image Analysis—A Comparative Assessment of Use for Analysis of Digital SEM Images of High-Temperature Ceramic Material
by Ilona Jastrzębska and Adam Piwowarczyk
Materials 2023, 16(2), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020812 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1391
Abstract
Image analysis is a powerful tool that can be applied in scientific research, industry, and everyday life, but still, there is more room to use it in materials science. The interdisciplinary cooperation between materials scientists and computer scientists can unlock the potential of [...] Read more.
Image analysis is a powerful tool that can be applied in scientific research, industry, and everyday life, but still, there is more room to use it in materials science. The interdisciplinary cooperation between materials scientists and computer scientists can unlock the potential of digital image analysis. Traditional image analysis used in materials science, manual or computer-aided, permits for the quantitative assessment of the coexisting components at the cross-sections, based on stereological law. However, currently used cutting-edge tools for computer image analysis can greatly speed up the process of microstructure analysis, e.g., via simultaneous extraction of quantitative data of all phases in an SEM image. The dedicated digital image processing software Aphelion was applied to develop an algorithm for the automated image analysis of multi-phase high-temperature ceramic material. The algorithm recognizes each phase and simultaneously calculates its quantity. In this work, we compare the traditional stereology-based methods of image analysis (linear and planimetry) to the automated method using a developed algorithm. The analysis was performed on a digital SEM microstructural image of high-temperature ceramic material from the Cu-Al-Fe-O system, containing four different phase components. The results show the good agreement of data obtained by classical stereology-based methods and the developed automated method. This presents an opportunity for the fast extraction of both qualitative and quantitative from the SEM images. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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15 pages, 5672 KiB  
Article
Use of Neural Networks for Lifetime Analysis of Teeming Ladles
by Dalibor Jančar, Mario Machů, Marek Velička, Petr Tvardek, Leoš Kocián and Jozef Vlček
Materials 2022, 15(22), 8234; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228234 - 19 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1640
Abstract
When describing the behaviour and modelling of real systems, which are characterized by considerable complexity, great difficulty, and often the impossibility of their formal mathematical description, and whose operational monitoring and measurement are difficult, conventional analytical–statistical models run into the limits of their [...] Read more.
When describing the behaviour and modelling of real systems, which are characterized by considerable complexity, great difficulty, and often the impossibility of their formal mathematical description, and whose operational monitoring and measurement are difficult, conventional analytical–statistical models run into the limits of their use. The application of these models leads to necessary simplifications, which cause insufficient adequacy of the resulting mathematical description. In such cases, it is appropriate for modelling to use the methods brought by a new scientific discipline—artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence provides very promising tools for describing and controlling complex systems. The method of neural networks was chosen for the analysis of the lifetime of the teeming ladle. Artificial neural networks are mathematical models that approximate non-linear functions of an arbitrary waveform. The advantage of neural networks is their ability to generalize the dependencies between individual quantities by learning the presented patterns. This property of a neural network is referred to as generalization. Their use is suitable for processing complex problems where the dependencies between individual quantities are not exactly known. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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17 pages, 5093 KiB  
Article
Development and Testing of Castables with Low Content of Calcium Oxide
by David Zemánek and Lenka Nevřivová
Materials 2022, 15(17), 5918; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175918 - 26 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1528
Abstract
Colloidal silica is used in many kinds of industry. It is an aqueous dispersion of SiO2 nanoparticles. SiO2 colloidal solutions are commercially available in different concentrations, with different particle sizes and are stabilized with different ions. Colloidal SiO2 was used [...] Read more.
Colloidal silica is used in many kinds of industry. It is an aqueous dispersion of SiO2 nanoparticles. SiO2 colloidal solutions are commercially available in different concentrations, with different particle sizes and are stabilized with different ions. Colloidal SiO2 was used in this study as a cement replacement in refractory castable. The present study, in its first stage, offers an assessment of five different SiO2 colloidal solutions. The particle size of the solutions was 15 nm, the particle concentration was 30% and 40% and the colloidal solutions were stabilized with Na+, OH− and Cl− ions. The effect of the colloidal solutions on selected characteristics of the refractory pastes and on their mineralogical composition after firing at 1000 °C and 1500 °C was described. The most suitable SiO2 colloidal solution from the first stage was subsequently used for the refractory castable test samples’ preparation in the second stage. Refractory castables, unlike paste, contain a coarse aggregate (grog) up to a grain size of 6 mm. Four types of coarse refractory grog were evaluated. Their effect on selected characteristics of the refractory castable and on its mineralogical composition after firing at 1000 °C and 1500 °C was described. The selected characteristics, within the scope of this study, include bulk density, apparent porosity, cold modulus of rupture and linear changes after firing. Finally, the study describes the effect of the sol particle concentration and the effect of pore size distribution on corrosion resistance and on the internal structure of the material. Mineral and chemical compositions and microstructures of both the raw materials and designed aggregates were thoroughly investigated by the means of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. An analysis of the transition zone between corrosive media (K2CO3) and tested castables showed better corrosion resistance for a sol-gel castable than an ultra-low cement castable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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15 pages, 5328 KiB  
Article
Corrosive Effect of Wood Ash Produced by Biomass Combustion on Refractory Materials in a Binary Al–Si System
by Hana Ovčačíková, Marek Velička, Jozef Vlček, Michaela Topinková, Miroslava Klárová and Jiří Burda
Materials 2022, 15(16), 5796; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165796 - 22 Aug 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1913
Abstract
In terms of its chemical composition, biomass is a very complex type of fuel. Its combustion leads to the formation of materials such as alkaline ash and gases, and there is evidence of the corrosive effect this process has on refractory linings, thus [...] Read more.
In terms of its chemical composition, biomass is a very complex type of fuel. Its combustion leads to the formation of materials such as alkaline ash and gases, and there is evidence of the corrosive effect this process has on refractory linings, thus shortening the service life of the combustion unit. This frequently encountered process is known as “alkaline oxidative bursting”. Corrosion is very complex, and it has not been completely described yet. Alkaline corrosion is the most common cause of furnace-lining degradation in aggregates that burn biomass. This article deals with an experiment investigating the corrosion resistance of 2 types of refractory materials in the Al2O3-SiO2 binary system, for the following compositions: I. (53 wt.% SiO2/42 wt.% Al2O3) and II. (28 wt.% SiO2/46 wt.% Al2O3/12 wt.% SiC). These were exposed to seven types of ash obtained from one biomass combustion company in the Czech Republic. The chemical composition of the ash is a good indicator of the problematic nature of a type of biomass. The ashes were analyzed by X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. Analysis confirmed that ash composition varies. The experiment also included the calculation of the so-called “slagging/fouling index” (I/C, TA, Sr, B/A, Fu, etc.), which can be used to estimate the probability of slag formation in combustion units. The corrosive effect on refractory materials was evaluated according to the norm ČSN P CEN/TS 15418, and a static corrosion test was used to investigate sample corrosion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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21 pages, 8658 KiB  
Article
Corrosion of Alumina-Spinel Refractory by Secondary Metallurgical Slag Using Coating Corrosion Test
by Sina Darban, Camille Reynaert, Maciej Ludwig, Ryszard Prorok, Ilona Jastrzębska and Jacek Szczerba
Materials 2022, 15(10), 3425; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103425 - 10 May 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1949
Abstract
In this paper, the corrosion mechanism of commercial alumina-spinel refractory was investigated at 1350 and 1450 °C. Disc samples were coated with shells of two different slags containing 4 and 10 wt.% SiO2. The after-corrosion refractory was investigated in view of [...] Read more.
In this paper, the corrosion mechanism of commercial alumina-spinel refractory was investigated at 1350 and 1450 °C. Disc samples were coated with shells of two different slags containing 4 and 10 wt.% SiO2. The after-corrosion refractory was investigated in view of changes in its microstructure and phase composition by SEM/EDS and XRD techniques, respectively. At 1350 °C slags slightly infiltrated the microstructure, whereas at 1450 °C slags infiltrated the alumina-spinel refractory causing its significant corrosion. As a result of corrosion, new phases were formed, including calcium dialuminate (Ca2Al4O7), calcium hexaluminate (CaAl12O19), and gehlenite (Ca2AlSi2O7). Formation of calcium aluminate layers in the microstructure of the refractory inhibited further dissolution of alumina aggregates; however, expansive behavior of CaAl12O19 raised the microstructure porosity. The additional SiO2 in the slag doubled the amount of low melting gehlenite in the matrix, accelerating the corrosion process of alumina-spinel brick at high temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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12 pages, 4097 KiB  
Article
The Wear Rate Forecast of MgO-C Materials Type MC95/10 in the Slag Spout Zone of an Oxygen Converter in Terms of the Bayesian Estimation
by Wiesław Zelik, Sebastian Sado and Ryszard Lech
Materials 2022, 15(9), 3065; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093065 - 22 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1314
Abstract
The ceramic–carbon refractory lining of an oxygen converter is subjected to variable thermochemical stresses, causing a progressive loss of material over time, which is expressed in a decreasing residual thickness of the lining. The forecasting method using Bayesian statistics has become a valuable [...] Read more.
The ceramic–carbon refractory lining of an oxygen converter is subjected to variable thermochemical stresses, causing a progressive loss of material over time, which is expressed in a decreasing residual thickness of the lining. The forecasting method using Bayesian statistics has become a valuable skill in steel production planning and is one of the main conditions constituting the appropriate organization of steel and refractories production. This paper presents examples of Bayesian modelling of the unit wear rate value of the refractory materials for the zone with the highest wear in the refractory lining of a converter. From the experience gained during long-term operation of a steel-producing oxygen converter, it was found that the value of the unit wear rate of the refractory material in the slag spout zone of the steel-producing oxygen converter is subjected to an a posteriori normal distribution, with the following parameters: mean value µ = 401.23 µ heat−1, standard deviation σ = 13.74 µm heat−1. The forecasted mean value of the unit wear rate of the MC95/10 refractories lined in the slag spout zone of the oxygen converter used for steel production, and which operates in intensive exploitation conditions, was equal to µ = 420 µm heat−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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19 pages, 7844 KiB  
Article
Corrosion Resistance of Novel Fly Ash-Based Forsterite-Spinel Refractory Ceramics
by Martin Nguyen and Radomír Sokolář
Materials 2022, 15(4), 1363; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041363 - 12 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1988
Abstract
This article aims to investigate the corrosion resistance of novel fly ash–based forsterite–spinel (Mg2SiO4-MgAl2O4) refractory ceramics to various corrosive media in comparison with reactive alumina–based ceramics. Because fly ash is produced in enormous quantities as [...] Read more.
This article aims to investigate the corrosion resistance of novel fly ash–based forsterite–spinel (Mg2SiO4-MgAl2O4) refractory ceramics to various corrosive media in comparison with reactive alumina–based ceramics. Because fly ash is produced in enormous quantities as a byproduct of coal-burning power stations, it could be utilized as an affordable source of aluminum oxide and silicon oxide. Corrosion resistance to iron, clinker, alumina, and copper was observed by scanning electron microscope with an elemental probe. The influence on the properties after firing was also investigated. Fly ash–based and reactive alumina–based mixtures were designed to contain 10%, 15% and 20% of spinel after firing. Raw material mixtures were sintered at 1550 °C for two hours. X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy were used to analyze sintered samples. The apparent porosity, bulk density, modulus of rupture, and refractory and thermo–mechanical properties were also investigated. The experimental results disclosed that the modulus of rupture, thermal shock resistance and microstructure were improved with increasing amounts of spinel in the fired samples. An analysis of the transition zones between corrosive media and ceramics revealed that all mixtures have good resistance against corrosion to iron, clinker, aluminum and copper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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11 pages, 16502 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Action Mechanism of Titanium in Alumina–Magnesia Castables by Adding Different Ti-Bearing Compounds
by Hai Tang, Yuhao Zhou and Wenjie Yuan
Materials 2022, 15(3), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030793 - 21 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1349
Abstract
To investigate the action mechanism of titanium, the effects of different Ti-bearing compounds, including CaTiO3, MgTiO3, and nano-TiO2, on the properties of alumina–magnesia castables were studied. By analyzing the phase compositions, microstructures, and physical and mechanical properties [...] Read more.
To investigate the action mechanism of titanium, the effects of different Ti-bearing compounds, including CaTiO3, MgTiO3, and nano-TiO2, on the properties of alumina–magnesia castables were studied. By analyzing the phase compositions, microstructures, and physical and mechanical properties of the castables, it was demonstrated that an intermediate product, CaTiO3, was first generated. This was then consumed by solid-solution reactions, and titanium was involved in the liquid formation as the temperature increased. The solid-solution reaction of CA6 (CaAl12O19) was more prominent due to the incorporation of more titanium in the crystal lattice of CA6 instead of spinel (MgAl2O4). Moreover, the liquid formation was strongly promoted when more titanium accompanied the calcium, which finally accelerated the densification and improved the strengths of alumina–magnesia castables. On the whole, castables with CaTiO3 addition presented higher bulk density and excellent strength after the heat treatment. Besides, the castables with 2 wt.% CaTiO3 contents were estimated to possess greater thermal shock resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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23 pages, 12532 KiB  
Article
Corrosion Resistance of MgO and Cr2O3-Based Refractory Raw Materials to PbO-Rich Cu Slag Determined by Hot-Stage Microscopy and Pellet Corrosion Test
by Maciej Ludwig, Edyta Śnieżek, Ilona Jastrzębska, Ryszard Prorok, Yawei Li, Ning Liao, Mithun Nath, Jozef Vlček and Jacek Szczerba
Materials 2022, 15(3), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030725 - 18 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1826
Abstract
Chemical resistance of commercial refractory raw materials against Cu slag is critical to consider them as candidates for the production of refractories used in Cu metallurgy. In this study, we show the comparative results for the corrosion resistance of four commercial refractory raw [...] Read more.
Chemical resistance of commercial refractory raw materials against Cu slag is critical to consider them as candidates for the production of refractories used in Cu metallurgy. In this study, we show the comparative results for the corrosion resistance of four commercial refractory raw materials—magnesia chromite co-clinkers FMC 45 and FMC 57, PAK, and fused spinel SP AM 70—against aggressive, low-melting PbO-rich Cu slag (Z1) determined by hot-stage microscopy (up to 1450 °C) and pellet test (1100 and 1400 °C). Samples were characterized after the pellet test by XRD, SEM/EDS, and examination of their physicochemical properties to explore the corrosion reactions and then assess comparatively their chemical resistance. Since many works have focused on corrosion resistance of refractory products, the individual refractory raw materials have not been investigated so far. In this work, we show that magnesia chromite co-clinker FMC 45 exhibits the most beneficial properties considering its application in the production of refractories for the Cu industry. Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and güggenite (Cu2MgO3) solid solutions constitute corrosion products in FMC 45, and its mixture with slag shows moderate dimensional stability at high temperatures. On the other hand, the fused spinel SP AM 70 is the least resistant to PbO-rich Cu slag (Z1); it starts to sinter at 970 °C, followed by a fast 8%-shrinkage caused by the formation of güggenite solid solution in significant amounts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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24 pages, 5907 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Quasi-Static and Dynamic Fracture of the Silica Refractory Using the Mesoscale Discrete Element Modelling
by Aleksandr S. Grigoriev, Andrey V. Zabolotskiy, Evgeny V. Shilko, Andrey I. Dmitriev and Kirill Andreev
Materials 2021, 14(23), 7376; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237376 - 01 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1576
Abstract
Computer modelling is a key tool in the optimisation and development of ceramic refractories utilised as insulation in high-temperature industrial furnaces and reactors. The paper is devoted to the mesoscale computer modelling of silica refractories using the method of homogeneously deformable discrete elements. [...] Read more.
Computer modelling is a key tool in the optimisation and development of ceramic refractories utilised as insulation in high-temperature industrial furnaces and reactors. The paper is devoted to the mesoscale computer modelling of silica refractories using the method of homogeneously deformable discrete elements. Approaches to determine the local mechanical properties of the constituents from the global experimental failure parameters and respective crack trajectories are considered. Simulations of the uniaxial compressive and tensile failure in a wide range of quasi-static and dynamic loading rates (102 s−1) are performed. The upper limit of the dynamic loading rates corresponds to the most severe loading rates during the scrap loading on the refractory lining. The dependence of the strength, fracture energy, and brittleness at failure on the loading rate is analysed. The model illustrates that an increase in the loading rate is accompanied by a significant change in the mechanical response of the refractory, including a decrease in the brittleness at failure, a more dispersed failure process, and a higher fraction of the large grain failure. The variation of the grain–matrix interface’s strength has a higher impact on the static compressive than on the static tensile properties of the material, while the material’s dynamic tensile properties are more sensitive to the interface strength than the dynamic compressive properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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11 pages, 6170 KiB  
Article
High-Temperature Chemical Stability of Cr(III) Oxide Refractories in the Presence of Calcium Aluminate Cement
by Tengteng Xu, Yibiao Xu, Ning Liao, Yawei Li and Mithun Nath
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6590; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216590 - 02 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1412
Abstract
Al2O3-CaO-Cr2O3 castables are used in various furnaces due to excellent corrosion resistance and sufficient early strength, but toxic Cr(VI) generation during service remains a concern. Here, we investigated the relative reactivity of analogous Cr(III) phases such [...] Read more.
Al2O3-CaO-Cr2O3 castables are used in various furnaces due to excellent corrosion resistance and sufficient early strength, but toxic Cr(VI) generation during service remains a concern. Here, we investigated the relative reactivity of analogous Cr(III) phases such as Cr2O3, (Al1−xCrx)2O3 and in situ Cr(III) solid solution with the calcium aluminate cement under an oxidizing atmosphere at various temperatures. The aim is to comprehend the relative Cr(VI) generation in the low-cement castables (Al2O3-CaO-Cr2O3-O2 system) and achieve an environment-friendly application. The solid-state reactions and Cr(VI) formation were investigated using powder XRD, SEM, and leaching tests. Compared to Cr2O3, the stability of (Al1−xCrx)2O3 against CAC was much higher, which improved gradually with the concentration of Al2O3 in (Al1−xCrx)2O3. The substitution of Cr2O3 with (Al1−xCrx)2O3 in the Al2O3-CaO-Cr2O3 castables could completely inhibit the formation of Cr(VI) compound CaCrO4 at 500–1100 °C and could drastically suppress Ca4Al6CrO16 generation at 900 to 1300 °C. The Cr(VI) reduction amounting up to 98.1% could be achieved by replacing Cr2O3 with (Al1−xCrx)2O3 solid solution. However, in situ stabilized Cr(III) phases as a mixture of (Al1−xCrx)2O3 and Ca(Al12−xCrx)O19 solid solution hardly reveal any reoxidation. Moreover, the CA6 was much more stable than CA and CA2, and it did not participate in any chemical reaction with (Al1−xCrx)2O3 solid solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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18 pages, 5536 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Niobium-Alumina Composite Aggregates and Their Application in Coarse-Grained Refractory Ceramic-Metal Castables
by Tilo Zienert, Dirk Endler, Jana Hubálková, Gökhan Günay, Anja Weidner, Horst Biermann, Bastian Kraft, Susanne Wagner and Christos Georgios Aneziris
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6453; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216453 - 27 Oct 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1822
Abstract
Niobium-alumina aggregate fractions with particle sizes up to 3150 µm were produced by crushing pre-synthesised fine-grained composites. Phase separation with niobium enrichment in the aggregate class 45–500 µm was revealed by XRD/Rietveld analysis. To reduce the amount of carbon-based impurities, no organic additives [...] Read more.
Niobium-alumina aggregate fractions with particle sizes up to 3150 µm were produced by crushing pre-synthesised fine-grained composites. Phase separation with niobium enrichment in the aggregate class 45–500 µm was revealed by XRD/Rietveld analysis. To reduce the amount of carbon-based impurities, no organic additives were used for the castable mixtures, which resulted in water demands of approximately 27 vol.% for the fine- and coarse-grained castables. As a consequence, open porosities of 18% and 30% were determined for the fine- and coarse-grained composites, respectively. Due to increased porosity, the modulus of rupture at room temperature decreased from 52 MPa for the fine-grained composite to 11 MPa for the coarse-grained one. However, even the compressive yield strength decreased from 49 MPa to 18 MPa at 1300 °C for the fine-grained to the coarse-grained composite, the latter showed still plasticity with a strain up to 5%. The electrical conductivity of fine-grained composite samples was in the range between 40 and 60 S/cm, which is fifteen magnitudes above the values of pure corundum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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15 pages, 21656 KiB  
Article
Metal-Ceramic Beads Based on Niobium and Alumina Produced by Alginate Gelation
by Enrico Storti, Marc Neumann, Tilo Zienert, Jana Hubálková and Christos Georgios Aneziris
Materials 2021, 14(19), 5483; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195483 - 22 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1774
Abstract
Full metal-ceramic composite beads containing different amounts of niobium and alumina, particularly 100 vol% alumina, 100 vol% niobium, and 95/5 vol% niobium/alumina, were produced by the alginate gelation process. The suspension for bead fabrication contained sodium alginate as gelling agent and was added [...] Read more.
Full metal-ceramic composite beads containing different amounts of niobium and alumina, particularly 100 vol% alumina, 100 vol% niobium, and 95/5 vol% niobium/alumina, were produced by the alginate gelation process. The suspension for bead fabrication contained sodium alginate as gelling agent and was added dropwise into a calcium chloride solution to trigger the consolidation process. After debinding in air, sintering of the composite beads was performed under inert atmosphere. Samples in green and sintered state were analyzed by digital light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Investigations by mercury intrusion porosimetry revealed that pure alumina beads featured smaller pores compared to composite beads, although the open porosities were comparable. The fracture strength was evaluated on single beads. Contrary to the pure alumina, the composite beads showed a clear plastic deformation. Pure niobium beads showed a ductile behavior with very large deformations. XRD analyses revealed the presence of calcium hexaluminate and beta-alumina as minor phases in the alumina beads, while the composite ones contained about 25 wt% of impurities. The impurities comprised NbO arising from the oxidation, and β-Nb2C, from the reaction with the residual sodium alginate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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10 pages, 5924 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Oxidation Resistance of Al2O3-SiC-C Castables via Introducing Micronized Andalusite
by Xiaoyu Wang, Saixin Wang, Yuandong Mu, Ruijie Zhao, Qingfeng Wang, Chris Parr and Guotian Ye
Materials 2021, 14(17), 4775; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174775 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1813
Abstract
Additions of andalusite aggregates (19 wt%) were shown in previous literature to enhance the antioxidation of Al2O3-SiC-C (ASC) castables. This work aims to investigate whether micronized andalusite has a greater influence on antioxidation improvement than andalusite aggregates. Various low [...] Read more.
Additions of andalusite aggregates (19 wt%) were shown in previous literature to enhance the antioxidation of Al2O3-SiC-C (ASC) castables. This work aims to investigate whether micronized andalusite has a greater influence on antioxidation improvement than andalusite aggregates. Various low contents (5 wt% and below) of micronized andalusite (≤5 μm) were introduced as a substitute for brown fused alumina in the matrix of ASC castables. The antioxidation of castable specimens was estimated by the oxidized area ratio on the fracture surface after a thermal shock test. The microstructure and phases of micronized andalusite and the castable specimens were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. The results suggest that the antioxidation effects of ASC castables with a low addition of micronized andalusite are effectively enhanced. The heat-induced transformation of andalusite produces SiO2-rich glass, favoring the sintering of the castable matrix and impeding oxygen diffusion into the castable’s interior. Therefore, the castable antioxidation is enhanced without deteriorating the hot modulus of rupture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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10 pages, 4014 KiB  
Article
Effect of Hollow Corundum Microspheres Additive on Physical and Mechanical Properties and Thermal Shock Resistance Behavior of Bauxite Based Refractory Castable
by Rimvydas Stonys, Jurgita Malaiškienė, Jelena Škamat and Valentin Antonovič
Materials 2021, 14(16), 4736; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164736 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2349
Abstract
This paper analyses the effect of hollow corundum microspheres (HCM) on both physical-mechanical properties (density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, modulus of elasticity, and compressive strength) and thermal shock resistance behavior of refractory medium cement castable with bauxite aggregate. Moreover, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [...] Read more.
This paper analyses the effect of hollow corundum microspheres (HCM) on both physical-mechanical properties (density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, modulus of elasticity, and compressive strength) and thermal shock resistance behavior of refractory medium cement castable with bauxite aggregate. Moreover, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results of HCM and refractory castable samples are presented in the paper. It was found that the replacement of bauxite of 0–0.1 mm fraction by HCM (2.5%, 5%, and 10% by weight of dry mix) had no significant effect on the density and compressive strength of castable, while the modulus of elasticity decreased by 15%. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (Vup) values and the visual analysis of the samples after thermal cycling showed that a small amount of HCM in composition of refractory castable could reduce the formation and propagation of cracks and thus increase its thermal shock resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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15 pages, 3163 KiB  
Communication
Structure–Property Functions of Inorganic Chemical Binders for Refractories
by Vanessa Hopp, Ali Masoudi Alavi, Dominik Hahn and Peter Quirmbach
Materials 2021, 14(16), 4636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164636 - 17 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3068
Abstract
For refractory application, amongst others, inorganic chemical binders are used to shape and process loose, unpacked materials. The binder influences the chemical composition within the ceramic body during setting, aging and firing and thus the finally reached properties of the refractory material. For [...] Read more.
For refractory application, amongst others, inorganic chemical binders are used to shape and process loose, unpacked materials. The binder influences the chemical composition within the ceramic body during setting, aging and firing and thus the finally reached properties of the refractory material. For an effective design of tailored materials with required properties, the mode of action of the binder systems should carefully be investigated. A combination of both structure analysis techniques and macroscopic property investigations proved to be a powerful tool for a detailed description of structure–property correlations. This is shown on the basis of X-ray powder diffraction and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyses combined with observation of (thermo)mechanical and chemical investigations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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14 pages, 9339 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Molten Metal Infiltration into Micropore Carbon Refractory Materials Using X-ray Computed Tomography
by Jakub Stec, Jacek Tarasiuk, Sebastian Wroński, Piotr Kubica, Janusz Tomala and Robert Filipek
Materials 2021, 14(12), 3148; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123148 - 08 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2144
Abstract
The lifetime of a blast furnace (BF), and, consequently, the price of steel, strongly depends on the degradation of micropore carbon refractory materials used as lining materials in the BF hearth. One of the major degradation mechanisms in the BF hearth is related [...] Read more.
The lifetime of a blast furnace (BF), and, consequently, the price of steel, strongly depends on the degradation of micropore carbon refractory materials used as lining materials in the BF hearth. One of the major degradation mechanisms in the BF hearth is related to the infiltration and dissolution of refractory materials in molten metal. To design new and more resilient materials, we need to know more about degradation mechanisms, which can be achieved using laboratory tests. In this work, we present a new investigation method of refractory materials infiltration resistance. The designed method combines a standard degradation test (hot metal penetration test) with X-ray computed tomography (XCT) measurements. Application of XCT measurements before and after molten metal infiltration allows observing changes in the micropore carbon refractory material’s microstructure and identifying the elements of the open pore structure that are crucial in molten metal infiltration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

18 pages, 708 KiB  
Review
Current State of Application of Machine Learning for Investigation of MgO-C Refractories: A Review
by Sebastian Sado, Ilona Jastrzębska, Wiesław Zelik and Jacek Szczerba
Materials 2023, 16(23), 7396; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16237396 - 28 Nov 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 965
Abstract
Nowadays, digitalization and automation in both industrial and research activities are driving forces of innovations. In recent years, machine learning (ML) techniques have been widely applied in these areas. A paramount direction in the application of ML models is the prediction of the [...] Read more.
Nowadays, digitalization and automation in both industrial and research activities are driving forces of innovations. In recent years, machine learning (ML) techniques have been widely applied in these areas. A paramount direction in the application of ML models is the prediction of the material service time in heating devices. The results of ML algorithms are easy to interpret and can significantly shorten the time required for research and decision-making, substituting the trial-and-error approach and allowing for more sustainable processes. This work presents the state of the art in the application of machine learning for the investigation of MgO-C refractories, which are materials mainly consumed by the steel industry. Firstly, ML algorithms are presented, with an emphasis on the most commonly used ones in refractories engineering. Then, we reveal the application of ML in laboratory and industrial-scale investigations of MgO-C refractories. The first group reveals the implementation of ML techniques in the prediction of the most critical properties of MgO-C, including oxidation resistance, optimization of the C content, corrosion resistance, and thermomechanical properties. For the second group, ML was shown to be mostly utilized for the prediction of the service time of refractories. The work is summarized by indicating the opportunities and limitations of ML in the refractories engineering field. Above all, reliable models require an appropriate amount of high-quality data, which is the greatest current challenge and a call to the industry for data sharing, which will be reimbursed over the longer lifetimes of devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Manufacturing, and Properties of Refractory Materials)
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