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Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications
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Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2025) | Viewed by 12369

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Stephan Handschuh-Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of New Materials and New Energies Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen, China
Interests: liquid metals; surface tension; interfacial phenomena; colloidal chemistry; diamond coatings
Dr. Ben Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
Interests: liquid metal; surface wettability; soft robots

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Metal and alloy liquids at or near room temperature have intrigued humankind for centuries. Recently, mercury was phased out in ample applications due to its toxicity and safety concerns. In lieu of mercury, gallium-based liquid metals have garnered renewed attention by the scientific community due to their safety and a combination of advantageous thermophysical properties. Further interesting alloys are based on indium (i.e., Field’s metal) and alkali metals. 

In particular, gallium-based alloys have been exploited for various applications, ranging from chemical (micro-)reactors and reaction environments (i.e., for galvanic replacement reactions and generation of thin metal oxides) via drug carriers to flexible electronics and thermal interface materials. The application of these alloys requires a fundamental understanding of liquid metals and their behavior (i.e., wetting, adhesion, alloying/corrosion/reactivity, viscosity, melting temperature and so on). Further, it necessitates detailed knowledge on the means to manipulate its properties and shape/location, i.e., for patterning techniques, and to limit liquid metal corrosion/embrittlement.

Therefore, this Special Issue invites research and review articles presenting fundamental knowledge on liquid metals (i.e., thermophysical properties/corrosion), articles bridging the gap between fundamental knowledge and application/device fabrication, and articles illustrating new or improved fabrication strategies or new applications.

Dr. Stephan Handschuh-Wang
Dr. Ben Wang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • liquid metals
  • gallium
  • thermophysical properties
  • wetting
  • nano liquid metals
  • patterning techniques
  • liquid metal corrosion
  • device fabrication

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3753 KiB  
Article
Design and Dynamic In Vivo Validation of a Multi-Channel Stretchable Liquid Metal Coil Array
by Elizaveta Motovilova, Terry Ching, Jana Vincent, Ek Tsoon Tan, Victor Taracila, Fraser Robb, Michinao Hashimoto, Darryl B. Sneag and Simone Angela Winkler
Materials 2024, 17(13), 3325; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133325 - 5 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1495
Abstract
Recent developments in the field of radiofrequency (RF) coils for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offer flexible and patient-friendly solutions. Previously, we demonstrated a proof-of-concept single-element stretchable coil design based on liquid metal and a self-tuning smart geometry. In this work, we numerically analyze [...] Read more.
Recent developments in the field of radiofrequency (RF) coils for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offer flexible and patient-friendly solutions. Previously, we demonstrated a proof-of-concept single-element stretchable coil design based on liquid metal and a self-tuning smart geometry. In this work, we numerically analyze and experimentally study a multi-channel stretchable coil array and demonstrate its application in dynamic knee imaging. We also compare our flexible coil array to a commonly used commercial rigid coil array. Our numerical analysis shows that the proposed coil array maintains its resonance frequency (<1% variation) and sensitivity (<6%) at various stretching configurations from 0% to 30%. We experimentally demonstrate that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the acquired MRI images is improved by up to four times with the stretchable coil array due to its conformal and therefore tight-fitting nature. This stretchable array allows for dynamic knee imaging at different flexion angles, infeasible with traditional, rigid coil arrays. These findings are significant as they address the limitations of current rigid coil technology, offering a solution that enhances patient comfort and image quality, particularly in applications requiring dynamic imaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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11 pages, 5270 KiB  
Article
Scalable Microwires through Thermal Drawing of Co-Extruded Liquid Metal and Thermoplastic Elastomer
by Pranjal Khakse, Falco Dangers, Rawan Elsersawy and Mohammad Abu Hasan Khondoker
Materials 2024, 17(11), 2770; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112770 - 6 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1485
Abstract
This article demonstrates scalable production of liquid metal (LM)-based microwires through the thermal drawing of extrudates. These extrudates were first co-extruded using a eutectic alloy of gallium and indium (EGaIn) as a core element and a thermoplastic elastomer, styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene (SEBS), as a shell [...] Read more.
This article demonstrates scalable production of liquid metal (LM)-based microwires through the thermal drawing of extrudates. These extrudates were first co-extruded using a eutectic alloy of gallium and indium (EGaIn) as a core element and a thermoplastic elastomer, styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene (SEBS), as a shell material. By varying the feed speed of the co-extruded materials and the drawing speed of the extrudate, it was possible to control the dimensions of the microwires, such as core diameter and shell thickness. How the extrusion temperature affects the dimensions of the microwire was also analyzed. The smallest microwire (core diameter: 52 ± 14 μm and shell thickness: 46 ± 10 μm) was produced from a drawing speed of 300.1 mm s−1 (the maximum attainable speed of the apparatus used), SEBS extrusion speed of 1.50 mm3 s−1, and LM injection rate of 5 × 105 μL s−1 at 190 °C extrusion temperature. The same extrusion condition without thermal drawing generated significantly large extrudates with a core diameter of 278 ± 26 μm and shell thickness of 430 ± 51 μm. The electrical properties of the microwires were also characterized under different degrees of stretching and wire kinking deformation which proved that these LM-based microwires change electrical resistance as they are deformed and fully self-heal once the load is removed. Finally, the sewability of these microwires was qualitatively tested by using a manual sewing machine to pattern microwires on a traditional cotton fabric. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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16 pages, 3231 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Corrosion of Eutectic Gallium, Indium, and Tin (EGaInSn) Interfacing with Diamond
by Stephan Handschuh-Wang, Tao Wang, Zongyan Zhang, Fucheng Liu, Peigang Han and Xiaorui Liu
Materials 2024, 17(11), 2683; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112683 - 2 Jun 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2078
Abstract
Thermal transport is of grave importance in many high-value applications. Heat dissipation can be improved by utilizing liquid metals as thermal interface materials. Yet, liquid metals exhibit corrosivity towards many metals used for heat sinks, such as aluminum, and other electrical devices (i.e., [...] Read more.
Thermal transport is of grave importance in many high-value applications. Heat dissipation can be improved by utilizing liquid metals as thermal interface materials. Yet, liquid metals exhibit corrosivity towards many metals used for heat sinks, such as aluminum, and other electrical devices (i.e., copper). The compatibility of the liquid metal with the heat sink or device material as well as its long-term stability are important performance variables for thermal management systems. Herein, the compatibility of the liquid metal Galinstan, a eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, with diamond coatings and the stability of the liquid metal in this environment are scrutinized. The liquid metal did not penetrate the diamond coating nor corrode it. However, the liquid metal solidified with the progression of time, starting from the second year. After 4 years of aging, the liquid metal on all samples solidified, which cannot be explained by the dissolution of aluminum from the titanium alloy. In contrast, the solidification arose from oxidation by oxygen, followed by hydrolysis to GaOOH due to the humidity in the air. The hydrolysis led to dealloying, where In and Sn remained an alloy while Ga separated as GaOOH. This hydrolysis has implications for many devices based on gallium alloys and should be considered during the design phase of liquid metal-enabled products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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17 pages, 3051 KiB  
Article
On Spontaneous Dispersion as a Cause of Microstratification of Metal Melts
by Olga A. Chikova, Vladimir S. Tsepelev and Kseniya Yu. Shmakova
Materials 2024, 17(10), 2215; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102215 - 8 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1186
Abstract
The phenomenon of spontaneous dispersion is considered as the cause of the microstratification of metal melts. In a microstratification melt, a violation of long-range order in the arrangement of atoms (LRO) is observed, which corresponds to a dispersed particle size of more than [...] Read more.
The phenomenon of spontaneous dispersion is considered as the cause of the microstratification of metal melts. In a microstratification melt, a violation of long-range order in the arrangement of atoms (LRO) is observed, which corresponds to a dispersed particle size of more than 2 nm. Microseparation occurs due to spontaneous dispersion upon contact of liquid and solid metal or the mixing of two liquid metals. The possibility of spontaneous dispersion was assessed using three different criteria: Volmer’s cr iterion, Rehbinder’s criterion and the diffusion rate criterion. The diffusion rate criterion was obtained on the basis of the theory of rate processes, which describes how diffusing atoms overcome the interphase boundary. It has been established that Al–Sn melts contain colloidal-scale particles (4 nm), and Al–Si and Al–Ge melts contain atomic-scale particles (0.1 nm). For a system with a continuous series of Cu–Ni solid solutions in dispersion (Cu10Ni90—Cu20Ni80), the particle size is 2 nm. The particle size of the ternary eutectic GaInSn in the dispersion (Ga50In50—Ga50Sn50) is 5.6 nm, and the size of immiscible Cu–Fe melts in the dispersion (Cu80Fe20—Cu60Fe40) is 4.8 nm. Long-range order violations (LRO) and the presence of microlayering with colloidal particles larger than 20 nm were observed in the GaInSn ternary eutectic, in the Al–Sn simple eutectic with the preferential interaction of similar atoms, and in Cu–Fe melts with a monotectic phase diagram. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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17 pages, 9109 KiB  
Article
Rapid Prototyping of Anomalous Reflective Metasurfaces Using Spray-Coated Liquid Metal
by Glan Allan V. Manio, Matthew T. Kouchi, Saige J. Dacuycuy, Aaron T. Ohta and Wayne A. Shiroma
Materials 2024, 17(9), 2003; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17092003 - 25 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1508
Abstract
Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) have the potential to improve wireless communication links by dynamically redirecting signals to dead spots. Although a reconfigurable surface is best suited for environments in which the reflected signal must be dynamically steered, there are cases where a static, [...] Read more.
Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) have the potential to improve wireless communication links by dynamically redirecting signals to dead spots. Although a reconfigurable surface is best suited for environments in which the reflected signal must be dynamically steered, there are cases where a static, non-reconfigurable anomalous reflective metasurface can suffice. In this work, spray-coated liquid metal is used to rapidly prototype an anomalous reflective metasurface. Using a pressurized air gun and a plastic thin-film mask, a metasurface consisting of a 6 × 4 array of Galinstan liquid–metal elements is sprayed within minutes. The metasurface produces a reflected wave at an angle of 28° from normal in response to a normal incident 3.5-GHz electromagnetic plane wave. The spray-coated liquid–metal metasurface shows comparable results to an anomalous reflective metasurface with copper elements of the same dimensions, demonstrating that this liquid–metal fabrication process is a viable solution for the rapid prototyping of anomalous reflective metasurfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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12 pages, 2672 KiB  
Article
Femtosecond Laser Fabrication of High-Linearity Liquid Metal-Based Flexible Strain Sensor
by Cheng Li, Chengjun Zhang, Haoyu Li, Zexiang Luo, Yuanchen Zhang, Xun Hou, Qing Yang and Feng Chen
Materials 2024, 17(9), 1979; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17091979 - 24 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1406
Abstract
Liquid metal (LM) is widely used in flexible electronic devices due to its excellent metallic conductivity and ductility. However, the fabrication of LM flexible strain sensors with high sensitivity and linearity is still a huge challenge, since the resistance of LM does not [...] Read more.
Liquid metal (LM) is widely used in flexible electronic devices due to its excellent metallic conductivity and ductility. However, the fabrication of LM flexible strain sensors with high sensitivity and linearity is still a huge challenge, since the resistance of LM does not change much with strain. Here, a highly sensitive and linear fully flexible strain sensor with a resistive sensing function is proposed. The sensor comprises an Fe-doped liquid metal (Fe-LM) electrode for enhanced performance. The design and manufacturing of flexible strain sensors are based on the technology of controlling surface wettability by femtosecond laser micro/nano-processing. A supermetalphobic microstructure is constructed on a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate to achieve the selection adhesion of Fe-LM on the PDMS substrate. The Fe-LM-based flexible strain sensor has high sensitivity and linearity, a gauge factor (GF) up to 1.18 in the strain range of 0–100%, excellent linearity with an R2 of 0.9978, a fast response time of 358 ms, and an excellent durability of more than 2400 load cycles. Additionally, the successful monitoring of human body signals demonstrates the potential of our developed flexible strain sensor in wearable monitoring applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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Review

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21 pages, 3366 KiB  
Review
A Review of the Development of Titanium-Based and Magnesium-Based Metallic Glasses in the Field of Biomedical Materials
by Zeyun Cai, Peng Du, Kun Li, Lina Chen and Guoqiang Xie
Materials 2024, 17(18), 4587; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17184587 - 19 Sep 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2031
Abstract
This article reviews the research and development focus of metallic glasses in the field of biomedical applications. Metallic glasses exhibit a short-range ordered and long-range disordered glassy structure at the microscopic level, devoid of structural defects such as dislocations and grain boundaries. Therefore, [...] Read more.
This article reviews the research and development focus of metallic glasses in the field of biomedical applications. Metallic glasses exhibit a short-range ordered and long-range disordered glassy structure at the microscopic level, devoid of structural defects such as dislocations and grain boundaries. Therefore, they possess advantages such as high strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance, combining characteristics of both metals and glasses. This novel alloy system has found applications in the field of biomedical materials due to its excellent comprehensive performance. This review discusses the applications of Ti-based bulk metallic glasses in load-bearing implants such as bone plates and screws for long-term implantation. On the other hand, Mg-based metallic glasses, owing to their degradability, are primarily used in degradable bone nails, plates, and vascular stents. However, metallic glasses as biomaterials still face certain challenges. The Young’s modulus value of Ti-based metallic glasses is higher than that of human bones, leading to stress-shielding effects. Meanwhile, Mg-based metallic glasses degrade too quickly, resulting in the premature loss of mechanical properties and the formation of numerous bubbles, which hinder tissue healing. To address these issues, we propose the following development directions: (1) Introducing porous structures into titanium-based metallic glasses is an important research direction for reducing Young’s modulus; (2) To enhance the bioactivity of implant material surfaces, the surface modification of titanium-based metallic glasses is essential. (3) Developing antibacterial coatings and incorporating antibacterial metal elements into the alloys is essential to maintain the long-term effective antibacterial properties of metallic biomaterials. (4) Corrosion resistance must be further improved through the preparation of composite materials, while ensuring biocompatibility and safety, to achieve controllable degradation rates and degradation modes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Metals: From Fundamentals to Applications)
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