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Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Advanced and Functional Ceramics and Glasses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2022) | Viewed by 33591

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Ewa Rysiakiewicz-Pasek

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Guest Editor

Department of Experimental Physics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: technology and properties of silica porous matrices; nanocomposite materials based on porous matrices (ferroic and multiferroic materials); alkali borosilicate glasses; special glasses; electrical properties of dielectrics

Prof. Tatiana Antropova

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of the Physical Chemistry of Glasses, Grebenshchikov Institute of Silicate Chemistry, Russian Academy of Science, Makarova emb., 2, 199034, Saint Petersburg, Russia
Interests: borosilicate glasses; phase separation; chemical durability; porous glass; composites for photonics and nano-, micro-, and optoelectronics; structure, optical, and luminescence spectroscopy; conductivity

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Porous materials, in particular glasses and ceramics, have attracted the attention of both the industry and academics and have been the subject of intensive research in recent years. This is connected both with advances in technology (reproducible bulk materials and thin films with calibrated pore sizes) and new challenging applications. The production of glasses and ceramics with different structure parameters (pore size, surface area, and volume of pores) and impregnation of porous materials with different substances are the tools to obtain nanocomposites with desired properties.

Porous glasses and ceramics are promising for the fabrication of sensors, filters, gas absorbers, luminescent media, etc. They can be used to produce porous membranes, energy storage, and heat exchangers. Porous glasses and ceramics are of great interest for the catalysis of chemical reactors and separation applications.

Porous silica films have been shown to produce excellent results in microelectronic applications for interlayer isolation (porous low-k films) and are a promising material in nonvolatile memories.

Bioactive porous glasses are an attractive material for implants in medicine. Hydroxyapatite porous ceramics are excellent materials for bone and teeth due to their chemical similarity to human tissue. Studies have shown that porous glasses can also be used as material for the controlled release of drugs.

This Special Issue on “Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Application” is dedicated to novel problems of porous glass and ceramics technology, properties, characterization, and application.

We are inviting you to publish the new original results of your research related but not limited to the following specific topics:

Technology of porous glasses and ceramics;
Porous glasses and ceramics structure (adsorptive, microscopy, and spectroscopy methods);
Properties of porous glasses and ceramics (including mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, optical, );
Diffusion processes in porous media;
Ceramic foams characterization and application;
The modification of porous glasses and ceramics, for example, by impregnation with various compounds and application of the produced composites;
Porous glasses and ceramics applications in industry (chemical manufacture, electronic, optoelectronics, laser technology, analytical instrumentation, etc.);
Biomedical application of porous glasses, ceramics, and glass–ceramics.

Prof. Ewa Rysiakiewicz-Pasek
Prof. Tatiana Antropova
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Porous glasses
Porous ceramics
Structure
Physical properties
Application
Bioactive porous materials
Nanocomposite materials
Catalyst supports
Membranes
Adsorbents.

Published Papers (13 papers)

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8 pages, 1723 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

On the Comparative Analysis of Different Phase Coexistences in Mesoporous Materials

by Henry R. N. B. Enninful, Dirk Enke and Rustem Valiullin

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2350; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072350 - 22 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1329

Abstract

Alterations of fluid phase transitions in porous materials are conventionally employed for the characterization of mesoporous solids. In the first approximation, this may be based on the application of the Kelvin equation for gas–liquid and the Gibbs–Thomson equation for solid–liquid phase equilibria for obtaining pore size distributions. Herein, we provide a comparative analysis of different phase coexistences measured in mesoporous silica solids with different pore sizes and morphology. Instead of comparing the resulting pore size distributions, we rather compare the transitions directly by using a common coordinate for varying the experiment’s thermodynamic parameters based on the two equations mentioned. Both phase transitions in these coordinates produce comparable results for mesoporous solids of relatively large pore sizes. In contrast, marked differences are found for materials with smaller pore sizes. This illuminates the fact that, with reducing confinement sizes, thermodynamic fluctuations become increasingly important and different for different equilibria considered. In addition, we show that in the coordinate used for analysis, mercury intrusion matches perfectly with desorption and freezing transitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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20 pages, 16195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Processing Parameters on the Fabrication of MgAl₂O₄ Foams

by Reynaldo Morales-Hernández, Víctor H. López-Morelos, Diana Cholico-González, Francisco Fernando Curiel-López, Marco Arturo García-Rentería, Lazaro Abdiel Falcón-Franco and Victor Hugo Martínez-Landeros

Materials 2021, 14(20), 5945; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14205945 - 10 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1431

Abstract

Stable MgAl₂O₄ foams (7–21 vol.%) were manufactured using a natural extract from the pericarp of the soap-nut fruit, saponin being the main component, as the foaming agent. The soap-nut extract is soluble in water, biodegradable, non-toxic, and has similar properties to commercial tensoactives. The stability and characteristics of the porous structure of the ceramic foams were evaluated in terms of the amount of foaming agent, content of MgAl₂O₄ particles, time and speed of stirring of the slurry, type of agitator, and drying temperature. It was found that the foaming capacity decreased with the percent of foaming agent and ceramic, whereas the time and speed of stirring enhanced the foamability. Foaming trials showed that stirring aqueous slurries with 3 wt.% of soap-nut extract for 2 min at 1070 or 2120 rpm, depending on the type of agitator, produced stable MgAl₂O₄ foams when drying at 60 °C. The mechanism of foaming is discussed. The foams were sintered at 1400 °C for 1 h under an Ar atmosphere. Observation of the sintered foam structures in the scanning electron microscope revealed nearly spherical cells with very good interconnectivity and strength to be manipulated, making them suitable as preforms for manufacturing Al-based composites by pressureless infiltration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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14 pages, 25855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Up-Cycling of LCD Glass by Additive Manufacturing of Porous Translucent Glass Scaffolds

by Arish Dasan, Paulina Ożóg, Jozef Kraxner, Hamada Elsayed, Elena Colusso, Luca Grigolato, Gianpaolo Savio, Dusan Galusek and Enrico Bernardo

Materials 2021, 14(17), 5083; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175083 - 5 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3032

Abstract

Additive manufacturing technologies, compared to conventional shaping methods, offer great opportunities in design versatility, for the manufacturing of highly porous ceramic components. However, the application to glass powders, later subjected to viscous flow sintering, involves significant challenges, especially in shape retention and in the achievement of a substantial degree of translucency in the final products. The present paper disclosed the potential of glass recovered from liquid crystal displays (LCD) for the manufacturing of highly porous scaffolds by direct ink writing and masked stereolithography of fine powders mixed with suitable organic additives, and sintered at 950 °C, for 1–1.5 h, in air. The specific glass, featuring a relatively high transition temperature (T_g~700 °C), allowed for the complete burn-out of organics before viscous flow sintering could take place; in addition, translucency was favored by the successful removal of porosity in the struts and by the resistance of the used glass to crystallization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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12 pages, 7964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yttrium Oxide Freeze-Casts: Target Materials for Radioactive Ion Beams

by Eva Kröll, Miriana Vadalà, Juliana Schell, Simon Stegemann, Jochen Ballof, Sebastian Rothe and Doru C. Lupascu

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2864; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112864 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2742

Abstract

Highly porous yttrium oxide is fabricated as ion beam target material in order to produce radioactive ion beams via the Isotope Separation On Line (ISOL) method. Freeze casting allows the formation of an aligned pore structure in these target materials to improve the isotope release. Aqueous suspensions containing a solid loading of 10, 15, and 20 vol% were solidified with a unidirectional freeze-casting setup. The pore size and pore structure of the yttrium oxide freeze-casts are highly affected by the amount of solid loading. The porosity ranges from 72 to 84% and the crosslinking between the aligned channels increases with increasing solid loading. Thermal aging of the final target materials shows that an operation temperature of 1400 °C for 96 h has no significant effect on the microstructure. Thermo-mechanical calculation results, based on a FLUKA simulation, are compared to measured compressive strength and forecast the mechanical integrity of the target materials during operation. Even though they were developed for the particular purpose of the production of short-lived radioactive isotopes, the yttria freeze-cast scaffolds can serve multiple other purposes, such as catalyst support frameworks or high-temperature fume filters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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24 pages, 14003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Study of Porous Organosilicate Glass Films Prepared from Mixtures of 1,3,5- and 1,3-Alkoxysilylbenzenes

by Md Rasadujjaman, Xuesong Wang, Yanrong Wang, Jing Zhang, Valeriy E. Arkhincheev and Mikhail R. Baklanov

Materials 2021, 14(8), 1881; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081881 - 9 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2340

Abstract

Organosilicate glass (OSG)-based porous low dielectric constant (low-k) films with different molar ratios of 1,3,5-tris(triethoxysilyl)benzene to 1,3-bis(triethoxysilyl)benzene bridging organic groups (1:3 and 1:7) were spin-on deposited, followed by a soft bake in air and N₂ at 150 °C and hard bake in air and N₂ at 400 °C. Non-ionic template (Brij^®30) concentrations were varied from 0 to 41 wt% to control the porosity of the films. The chemical composition of the matrix of the films was evaluated and discussed with the shrinkage of the film during the curing, refractive indices, mechanical properties, k-values, porosity and pore structure. The chemical composition of the film cured in both air and N₂-containing ambient were evaluated and compared. The benzene bridging groups containing films change their porosity (0 to 43%) but keep the pore size constant and equal to 0.81 nm when porosity is lower than 30%. The k-value decreases with increasing porosity, as expected. The films containing benzene bridge have higher a Young’s modulus than plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) methyl-terminated low-k films with the same porosity and show good hydrophobic properties after a hard bake and close to the values reported for 1,4-benzene-bridged films. The fabricated films show good stability after a long time of storage. However, the improvement of mechanical properties was lower than the values predicted by the published literature data. It was concluded that the concentration of 1,3,5-benzene bridges was below the stiffness threshold required for significant improvement of the mechanical properties. The films show UV-induced luminescence with a photon energy of 3.6 to 4.3 eV. The luminescence is related to the presence of oxygen-deficient-type defects or their combination with organic residues. The most intensive luminescence is observed in as-deposited and soft bake samples, then the intensity is reduced after a hard bake. It is assumed that the oxygen-deficient centers form because of the presence of Si–OC₂H₅ groups in the films and the concentration of these centers reduces when all these groups completely transformed into siloxane (Si–O–Si). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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21 pages, 5468 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Methyl Terminal and Carbon Bridging Groups Ratio on Critical Properties of Porous Organosilicate Glass Films

by Alexey S. Vishnevskiy, Sergej Naumov, Dmitry S. Seregin, Yu-Hsuan Wu, Wei-Tsung Chuang, Md Rasadujjaman, Jing Zhang, Jihperng Leu, Konstantin A. Vorotilov and Mikhail R. Baklanov

Materials 2020, 13(20), 4484; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13204484 - 10 Oct 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2308

Abstract

Organosilicate glass-based porous low dielectic constant films with different ratios of terminal methyl to bridging organic (methylene, ethylene and 1,4-phenylene) groups are spin-on deposited by using a mixture of alkylenesiloxane with organic bridges and methyltrimethoxysilane, followed by soft baking at 120–200 °C and curing at 430 °C. The films’ porosity was controlled by using sacrificial template Brij^® L4. Changes of the films’ refractive indices, mechanical properties, k-values, porosity and pore structure versus chemical composition of the film’s matrix are evaluated and compared with methyl-terminated low-k materials. The chemical resistance of the films to annealing in oxygen-containing atmosphere is evaluated by using density functional theory (DFT). It is found that the introduction of bridging groups changes their porosity and pore structure, increases Young’s modulus, but the improvement of mechanical properties happens simultaneously with the increase in the refractive index and k-value. The 1,4-phenylene bridging groups have the strongest impact on the films’ properties. Mechanisms of oxidative degradation of carbon bridges are studied and it is shown that 1,4-phenylene-bridged films have the highest stability. Methylene- and ethylene-bridged films are less stable but methylene-bridged films show slightly higher stability than ethylene-bridged films. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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12 pages, 5607 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Synthesis and Formation Mechanism of Limestone-Derived Porous Rod Hierarchical Ca-based Metal–Organic Framework for Efficient CO₂ Capture

by Po-Hsueh Chang, Hua-Pei Hsu, Szu-Chen Wu and Cheng-Hsiung Peng

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4297; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13194297 - 26 Sep 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3361

Abstract

Limestone is a relatively abundant and low-cost material used for producing calcium oxide as a CO₂ adsorbent. However, the CO₂ capture capacity of limestone decreases rapidly after multiple carbonation/calcination cycles. To improve the CO₂ capture performance, we developed a process using limestone to transform the material into a rod Ca-based metal–organic framework (Ca-MOF) via a hydrothermal process with the assistance of acetic acid and terephthalic acid (H₂BDC). The structural formation of rod Ca-MOF may result from the (200) face-oriented attachment growth of Ca-MOF sheets. Upon heat treatment, a highly stable porous rod network with a calcined Ca-MOF-O structure was generated with a pore distribution of 50–100 nm, which allowed the rapid diffusion of CO₂ into the interior of the sorbent and enhanced the CO₂ capture capacity with high multiple carbonation–calcination cycle stability compared to limestone alone at the intermediate temperature of 450 °C. The CO₂ capture capacity of the calcined porous Ca-MOF-O network reached 52 wt% with a CO₂ capture stability of 80% after 10 cycles. The above results demonstrated that rod Ca-MOF can be synthesized from a limestone precursor to form a porous network structure as a CO₂ capture sorbent to improve CO₂ capture performance at an intermediate temperature, thus suggesting its potential in environmental applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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10 pages, 2196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Insight into Phase Transitions of Porous Glass-Based Ferroelectric Nanocomposites

by Ewa Rysiakiewicz-Pasek, Tatiana Antropova, Irina Polyakova, Olga Pshenko and Agnieszka Ciżman

Materials 2020, 13(17), 3698; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13173698 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

The results of XRD, FTIR and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies of empty porous silica matrices filled with binary mixtures of K_1–xAg_xNO₃ (x = 0.05, 0.10) are reported in comparison with those obtained for bulk salts in the temperature range of structural phase transitions. Scanning electron microscopic data of the studied empty macroporous and microporous glasses confirmed differences in the pore morphology associated with the presence of silica gel. Accordingly, XRD and FTIR samples contain crystalline phase of KNO₃ and AgNO₃. The results of calorimetric investigation of porous glasses filled with binary mixtures of K_1–xAg_xNO₃ (x = 0.05, 0.10) are presented. The results show that in the K_1–xAg_xNO₃ nanocomposites, anomalies associated with phase transitions were detected. An influence of the mean value of pores sizes on the ferroelectric phase transition temperatures of K_1–xAg_xNO₃ nanocrystals embedded into the porous matrices was determined. The impact of pore space structure on the phase transitions of ferroics nanocomposites was discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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12 pages, 4352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Grains Shape Irregularity in Porous Ceramics—Numerical Study

by Danuta Miedzińska

Materials 2020, 13(8), 1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13081944 - 21 Apr 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1934

Abstract

The presented study deals with the analysis of the stochastic geometry of grains on ceramic foam strength behavior. A microstructural finite element (FE) model of a grainy structure of such a material was developed and stochastic changes to the grain geometry (initially of a regular cubic shape) were introduced. The numerical compression test of a series of finite element models was carried out with the use of LS Dyna computer code. To consider the ceramic specific behavior, the Johnson Holmquist constitutive model was implemented with parameters for alumina. The influence of the stochastic irregularities on the ceramic foam strength was observed—the geometry changes caused an increase in the maximum stress, which could be the basis for the indication that the production of the energy absorbing material should be based on mostly irregular grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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7 pages, 2074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Boron in a Hierarchical Nanoporous Layer Formation on Silicate Glass

by Takumi Ito, Erika Tabata, Yuki Ushioda and Takuya Fujima

Materials 2020, 13(8), 1817; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13081817 - 12 Apr 2020

Viewed by 2088

Abstract

A hierarchical nanoporous layer (HNL) can be formed on the silicate glass surface by simple alkali etching. Though it reportedly exhibits various useful functions, such as superhydrophilicity, optical anti-reflection, and material impregnation, the principle of its formation still remains unclear. In this study, HNL formation behavior was experimentally investigated while using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to clarify the role of boron contained in glass. As a result, it was found that HNL formation was significantly promoted by boron, which was rapidly eluted prior to alkali and alkaline earth metals. This suggests that boron, which forms the skeleton structure of glass together with Si and O, elutes to partially decompose the skeleton, and extends the elution route for HNL formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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15 pages, 15971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Operational Conditions in the Characteristics of Ceramic Foams Obtained from Quartz and Sodium Silicate

by Lina Uribe, Juan D. Giraldo and Alejandro Vargas

Materials 2020, 13(8), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13081806 - 11 Apr 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2633

Abstract

Ceramic foams were fabricated without using melting pots through the direct foaming of compacted powder mixtures of commercial quartz (SiO₂) with fluxing agents (Na₂CO₃ and CaO) and a foaming agent (Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O) at a relatively low temperature range (850−870 °C). The effects of the pressing pressure of the powders, the foaming time, foaming temperature, and mixture content were evaluated. The obtained cellular solid materials presented an acceptable volumetric expansion at a pressing pressure of 4 t. The materials only presented porosity at a minimum temperature of 850 °C and at a minimum time of 30 min. All the foamed samples showed an acceptable symmetric expansion and non-appreciable fissures. The study of the mixture content through the statistical software MODDE® shows that the porosity of the samples was principally affected by the Na₂SiO₃ content and the foaming temperature. The samples obtained at the optimum controlling factors proposed by this statistical software presented an apparent density, porosity, and mechanical strength of 1.09 ± 0.03 g/cm³, 56.01% ± 1.12%, and 3.90 ± 0.16 MPa, respectively. Glass and ceramics foams such as those obtained in this work become attractive as insulation materials in applications where high temperatures occur due to their higher melting points. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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16 pages, 2088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glass/Au Composite Membranes with Gold Nanoparticles Synthesized inside Pores for Selective Ion Transport

by Denis Lebedev, Maxim Novomlinsky, Vladimir Kochemirovsky, Ilya Ryzhkov, Irina Anfimova, Maxim Panov and Tatyana Antropova

Materials 2020, 13(7), 1767; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071767 - 9 Apr 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2133

Abstract

Nanocomposite membranes have been actively developed in the last decade. The involvement of nanostructures can improve the permeability, selectivity, and anti-fouling properties of a membrane for improved filtration processes. In this work, we propose a novel type of ion-selective Glass/Au composite membrane based on porous glass (PG), which combines the advantages of porous media and promising selective properties. The latter are achieved by depositing gold nanoparticles into the membrane pores by the laser-induced liquid phase chemical deposition technique. Inside the pores, gold nanoparticles with an average diameter 25 nm were formed, which was confirmed by optical and microscopic studies. To study the transport and selective properties of the PG/Au composite membrane, the potentiometric method was applied. The uniform potential model was used to determine the surface charge from the experimental data. It was found that the formation of gold nanoparticles inside membrane pores leads to an increase in the surface charge from −2.75 mC/m² to −5.42 mC/m². The methods proposed in this work allow the creation of a whole family of composite materials based on porous glasses. In this case, conceptually, the synthesis of these materials will differ only in the selection of initial precursors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

37 pages, 9718 KiB

Open AccessReview

Foam Replica Method in the Manufacturing of Bioactive Glass Scaffolds: Out-of-Date Technology or Still Underexploited Potential?

by Elisa Fiume, Sara Ciavattini, Enrica Verné and Francesco Baino

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2795; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112795 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4385

Abstract

Since 2006, the foam replica method has been commonly recognized as a valuable technology for the production of highly porous bioactive glass scaffolds showing three-dimensional, open-cell structures closely mimicking that of natural trabecular bone. Despite this, there are important drawbacks making the usage of foam-replicated glass scaffolds a difficult achievement in clinical practice; among these, certainly the high operator-dependency of the overall manufacturing process is one of the most crucial, limiting the scalability to industrial production and, thus, the spread of foam-replicated synthetic bone substitutes for effective use in routine management of bone defect. The present review opens a window on the versatile world of the foam replica technique, focusing the dissertation on scaffold properties analyzed in relation to various processing parameters, in order to better understand which are the real issues behind the bottleneck that still puts this technology on the Olympus of the most used techniques in laboratory practice, without moving, unfortunately, to a more concrete application. Specifically, scaffold morphology, mechanical and mass transport properties will be reviewed in detail, considering the various templates proposed till now by several research groups all over the world. In the end, a comprehensive overview of in vivo studies on bioactive glass foams will be provided, in order to put an emphasis on scaffold performances in a complex three-dimensional environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Glass and Ceramics: From Preparation to Applications)

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