Materials

Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 10162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Behavior During Reactions Between Sn and Electroplated Co–Zn Alloys

by Chao-Hong Wang and Che-Yang Lin

Materials 2025, 18(12), 2680; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18122680 - 6 Jun 2025

Viewed by 235

Abstract

This study investigates the electroplating characteristics of Co-Zn alloy coatings with varying Zn contents (0.55 wt.%~8.8 wt.%) and their influence on intermetallic compound (IMC) formation during reactions with Sn solder. Co-Zn alloy coatings were successfully fabricated by electroplating using cobalt plating solutions with [...] Read more.

This study investigates the electroplating characteristics of Co-Zn alloy coatings with varying Zn contents (0.55 wt.%~8.8 wt.%) and their influence on intermetallic compound (IMC) formation during reactions with Sn solder. Co-Zn alloy coatings were successfully fabricated by electroplating using cobalt plating solutions with different concentrations of zinc sulfate. The results reveal anomalous co-deposition behavior, where the less noble Zn preferentially deposits over Co. Surface morphologies and microstructures evolve significantly with increasing Zn content, transitioning from columnar to dendritic structures. Zn incorporation into the Co lattice disrupts its crystallinity, leading to decreased crystallinity and partial amorphization. Liquid-state and solid-state interfacial reactions with Sn solder demonstrate that Zn content considerably influences IMC formation. In liquid-state reactions at 250 °C, lower Zn contents (0.55–4.8 wt.%) slightly enhance CoSn₃ growth. It exhibits a dense layered-structure without IMC spallation. In contrast, a higher Zn content (8.8 wt.%) significantly reduces IMC formation by approximately 50% and produces a duplex structure with two distinct layers. In solid-state reactions at 160 °C, the suppression effect becomes even more pronounced. The Co-0.55Zn deposit exhibits significant inhibition of CoSn₃ growth, while the Co-8.8Zn sample forms only a thin IMC layer, achieving a suppression rate exceeding 85%. These findings demonstrate that Zn doping effectively limits CoSn₃ formation during solid-state reactions and improves interfacial stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

19 pages, 5299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inverse Neural Network Approach for Optimizing Chemical Composition in Shielded Metal Arc Weld Metals

by Taehyun Yoon, Young IL Park, Jaewoong Kim and Jeong-Hwan Kim

Materials 2025, 18(11), 2592; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18112592 - 1 Jun 2025

Viewed by 398

Abstract

This study presents a hybrid machine learning framework combining an artificial neural network and a genetic algorithm to optimize chemical compositions of shielded metal arc weld metals for achieving targeted mechanical properties. First, a neural network model was trained using a large experimental [...] Read more.

This study presents a hybrid machine learning framework combining an artificial neural network and a genetic algorithm to optimize chemical compositions of shielded metal arc weld metals for achieving targeted mechanical properties. First, a neural network model was trained using a large experimental database provided by Dr. Glyn M. Evans, which includes the chemical compositions and mechanical properties of over 950 shielded metal arc weld metals. The neural network model, optimized via Bayesian optimization, demonstrated high predictive accuracy for properties such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and Charpy impact transition temperatures. To enable inverse design, a genetic algorithm-based optimization was applied to the trained neural network model, iteratively exploring the composition space to find optimal elemental combinations that match predefined mechanical property targets. The proposed hybrid approach successfully identified multiple feasible compositions that closely match the desired mechanical behavior, demonstrating the potential of neural network-assisted inverse design in welding alloy development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 7690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Strength Parameters of Composite Reinforcement Consisting of Steel Member, Adhesive, and Carbon Fiber Textile

by Maciej Adam Dybizbański, Katarzyna Rzeszut, Saydiolimkhon Abdusattarkhuja and Zheng Li

Materials 2024, 17(23), 6022; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17236022 - 9 Dec 2024

Viewed by 898

Abstract

The main aim of the study was the determination of the strength parameters of composite bonded joints consisting of galvanised steel elements, an adhesive layer, and Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) fabric. For this purpose, shear laboratory tests were carried out on 60 lapped specimens [...] Read more.

The main aim of the study was the determination of the strength parameters of composite bonded joints consisting of galvanised steel elements, an adhesive layer, and Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) fabric. For this purpose, shear laboratory tests were carried out on 60 lapped specimens composed of 2 mm thick hot-dip galvanised steel plates of S350 GD. The specimens were overlapped on one side with SikaWrap 230 C carbon fibre textile (CFT) using SikaDur 330 adhesive. The tests were carried out in three series that differed in overlap length (15 mm, 25 mm, and 35 mm). A discussion on the failure mechanism in the context of the bonding capacity of the composite joint was carried out. We observed three forms of joint damage, namely, at the steel-adhesive interface, fibre rupture, and mixed damage behaviour. Moreover, an advanced numerical model using the commercial finite element (FE) program ABAQUS/Standard and the coupled cohesive zone model was developed. The material behaviour of the textile was defined as elastic-lamina and the mixed-mode Hashin damage model was implemented with bi-linear behaviour. Special attention was focused on the formulation of reliable methodologies to determine the load-bearing capacity, failure mechanisms, stress distribution, and the strength characteristics of a composite adhesive joint. In order to develop a reliable model, validation and verification were carried out and self-correlation parameters, which brought the model closer to the laboratory test, were proposed by the authors. Based on the conducted analysis, the strength characteristics including the load-bearing capacity, failure mechanisms, and stress distribution were established. The three forms of joint damage were observed as steel-adhesive interface failure, fibre rupture, and mixed-damage behaviour. Complex interactions between the materials were observed. The most dangerous adhesive failure was detected at the steel and adhesive interface. It was also found that an increase in adhesive thickness caused a decrease in joint strength. In the numerical analysis, two mechanical models were employed, namely, a sophisticated model of adhesive and fabric components. It was found that the fabric model was very sensitive to the density of the finite element mesh. It was also noticed that the numerical model referring to the adhesive layer was nonsensitive to the mesh size; thus, it was regarded as appropriate. Nevertheless, in order to increase the reliability of the numerical model, the authors proposed their own correlation coefficients α and β, which allowed for the correct mapping of adhesive damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 8120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Coaxial Ultrasound on the Droplet Transfer of High Nitrogen Steel GMAW Process

by Jiawen Luo, Zhizheng He, Zeng Liu, Zihuan Hua, Bin Teng and Chenglei Fan

Materials 2024, 17(22), 5509; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225509 - 12 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 700

Abstract

The nitrogen bubble bursting phenomenon during the welding process of high nitrogen steel (HNS) can lead to unstable droplet transfer and welding process, reducing the quality of weld formation. In this study, a novel approach, ultrasonic-assisted gas metal arc welding (U-GMAW), is proposed [...] Read more.

The nitrogen bubble bursting phenomenon during the welding process of high nitrogen steel (HNS) can lead to unstable droplet transfer and welding process, reducing the quality of weld formation. In this study, a novel approach, ultrasonic-assisted gas metal arc welding (U-GMAW), is proposed to suppress the escape of nitrogen gas during droplet transfer. This study investigates the influence of ultrasound on the metal transfer process during two distinct metal transfer modes: short-circuiting and droplet transfer. Ultrasound has a significant effect on the welding process; as ultrasonic power increases, both the arc length and droplet size decrease, while the droplet transfer frequency increases and the electrical signal stabilizes. Under the experimental conditions of this study, ultrasound has the most effective improvement on the metal transfer behavior when the ultrasonic power reaches 2 kW. Ultrasound enhances the stability of the droplet transfer process, making U-GMAW an effective and novel approach for controlling the droplet transfer behavior of high nitrogen steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 13125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laser Welding of ARMOX 500T Steel

by Aleksander Lisiecki, Agnieszka Kurc-Lisiecka, Wojciech Pakieła, Grzegorz Chrobak, Gilmar Ferreira Batalha and Marcin Adamiak

Materials 2024, 17(14), 3427; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143427 - 11 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1784

Abstract

The article describes the results of the study on laser welding of armor plates with a nominal thickness of 3.0 mm. The plates were made of Armox 500T steel characterized by a hardness of up to 540 HB, a minimum yield strength of [...] Read more.

The article describes the results of the study on laser welding of armor plates with a nominal thickness of 3.0 mm. The plates were made of Armox 500T steel characterized by a hardness of up to 540 HB, a minimum yield strength of 1250 MPa, an ultimate strength of up to 1750 MPa, and an elongation A5 minimum of 8%. The laser used for the welding tests was a solid state Yb:YAG laser. The influence of basic parameters such as laser output power, welding speed, and focal plane position on the weld geometry was determined during bead-on-plate welding tests. The optimal conditions for butt joint welding were determined, and the test joints were subjected to mechanical and impact tests, metallographic analysis, and hardness measurements. It has been shown that it is possible to laser weld Armox 500T armor plates, and at the same time it is possible to provide high quality butt joints, but this requires precise selection of welding parameters. A decrease in HAZ hardness of about 22–35% in relation to the hardness of the base material, ranging from 470 to 510 HV0.2, was found. The ultimate tensile strength of the test joints was approx. 20% lower than the Armox 500T steel. The bending tests revealed the low plasticity of the tested joints because the bending angle was just 25–35°. The results of Charpy V–notch test revealed that the impact toughness of the weld metal at −20 °C was approx. 30% lower than at room temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 6486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring FAST Technique for Diffusion Bonding of Tungsten to EUROFERE97 in DEMO First Wall

by María Sánchez, Javier de Prado, Ignacio Izaguirre, Andrei Galatanu and Alejandro Ureña

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112624 - 29 May 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1083

Abstract

The European Fusion Reactor (DEMO, Demonstration Power Plant) relies significantly on joining technologies in its design. Current research within the EUROfusion framework focuses on developing materials for the first wall and divertor applications, emphasizing the need for suitable joining processes, particularly for tungsten. [...] Read more.

The European Fusion Reactor (DEMO, Demonstration Power Plant) relies significantly on joining technologies in its design. Current research within the EUROfusion framework focuses on developing materials for the first wall and divertor applications, emphasizing the need for suitable joining processes, particularly for tungsten. The electric field-assisted sintering technique (FAST) emerges as a promising alternative due to its high current density, enabling rapid heating and cooling rates for fast sintering or joining. In this study, FAST was employed to join tungsten and EUROFERE97 steel, the chosen materials for the first wall, using 50-µm-thick Cu foils as interlayers. Three distinct joining conditions were tested at 980 °C for 2, 5, and 9 min at 41.97 MPa to optimize joint properties and assess FAST parameters influence. Hardness measurements revealed values around 450 HV_0.1 for tungsten, 100 HV_0.1 for copper, and 390 HV_0.1 for EUROFER97 under all joining conditions. Increasing bonding time improved joint continuity along the EUROFER97/Cu and W/Cu interfaces. Notably, the 5 min bonding time resulted in the highest shear strength, while the 9 min sample exhibited reduced strength, possibly due to Kirkendall porosity accumulation at the EUROFER97/Cu interface. This porosity facilitated crack initiation and propagation, diminishing interfacial adhesion properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 10621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Experimental Investigation of the Impact of the Hemispherical Tool on Heat Generation and Tensile Properties of Dissimilar Friction Stir Welded AA5083 and AA7075 Al Alloys

by Ahmed R. S. Essa, Ramy I. A. Eldersy, Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Ali Abd El-Aty, Ali Alamry, Bandar Alzahrani, Ahmed E. El-Nikhaily and Mohamed I. A. Habba

Materials 2024, 17(2), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020433 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1595

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of a hemispherical friction stir welding (FSW) tool on the heat generation and mechanical properties of dissimilar butt welded AA5083 and AA7075 alloys. FSW was performed on the dissimilar aluminum alloys AA5083-H111 and AA7075-T6 using welding speeds of [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effect of a hemispherical friction stir welding (FSW) tool on the heat generation and mechanical properties of dissimilar butt welded AA5083 and AA7075 alloys. FSW was performed on the dissimilar aluminum alloys AA5083-H111 and AA7075-T6 using welding speeds of 25, 50, and 75 mm/min. The tool rotation rate was kept constant at 500 rpm. An analytical model was developed to calculate heat generation and temperature distribution during the FSW process utilizing a hemispherical tool. The experimental results were compared to the calculated data. The latter confirms the accuracy of the analytical model, demonstrating a high degree of agreement. Sound FSW dissimilar joints were achieved at welding speeds of 50 and 25 mm/min. Meanwhile, joints created at a welding speed of 75 mm/min exhibited a tunnel-like defect, which can be attributed to the minimal heat generated at this particular welding speed. At a lower welding speed of 25 mm/min, a higher tensile strength of the dissimilar FSWed joints AA5083 and AA7075 was achieved with a joint efficiency of over 97%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

25 pages, 14228 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review on Metallurgical Issues in the Production and Welding Processes of Clad Steels

by Fabio Giudice, Severino Missori, Cristina Scolaro and Andrea Sili

Materials 2024, 17(17), 4420; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174420 - 8 Sep 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2103

Abstract

Carbon and low-alloy steel plates clad with stainless steel or other metals are a good choice to meet the demand for cost-effective materials to be used in many corrosive environments. Numerous technical solutions are developed for the production of clad steel plates, as [...] Read more.

Carbon and low-alloy steel plates clad with stainless steel or other metals are a good choice to meet the demand for cost-effective materials to be used in many corrosive environments. Numerous technical solutions are developed for the production of clad steel plates, as well as for their joining by fusion welding. For thick plates, a careful strategy is required in carrying out the multiple passes and in choosing the most suitable filler metals, having to take into account the composition of the base metal and the cladding layer. The specificity of the different processes and materials involved requires an adequate approach in the study of the metallurgical characteristics of clad steel, thus arousing the interest of researchers. Focusing mainly on ferritic steel plates clad with austenitic steel, this article aims to review the scientific literature of recent years which deals with both the production and the fusion welding processes. The metallurgical issues concerning the interfaces and the effects of microstructural characteristics on mechanical behaviour and corrosion resistance will be addressed; in particular, the effects on the fusion and thermally affected zones that form during the fusion welding and weld overlay processes will be analysed and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

New Perspectives in Welding and Joining Processes of Metallic Materials

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (8 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI