Land | Special Issue : Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services

Research

20 pages, 16926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Compositions of Landscape Elements Affect Outdoor Thermal Environments: Quantitative Study Along the Urban Riverside

by Zhaoxin Li, Jingyuan Zhao, Linrui Zhang, Bo Xia, Tianhui Wang and Ye Lu

Land 2025, 14(4), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14040687 - 24 Mar 2025

Viewed by 245

Abstract

Riverside landscape belts are crucial for mitigating urban heat islands and enhancing urban esthetics. This study investigates the thermal environment effects of X21 landscape configurations in riverside belts using field measurements and numerical simulations. The physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) assesses human thermal comfort [...] Read more.

Riverside landscape belts are crucial for mitigating urban heat islands and enhancing urban esthetics. This study investigates the thermal environment effects of X21 landscape configurations in riverside belts using field measurements and numerical simulations. The physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) assesses human thermal comfort variations. Main findings demonstrate that the “enclosed tree–shrub–grass” configuration is the most effective plant arrangement for enhancing the riverside landscape belts thermal environment, with grassland identified as the optimal underlying surface configuration. Moreover, PET reveals that “enclosed tree–shrub–grass” spaces provide greater comfort during morning and midday periods, while “shrub–grass” areas are more suitable for the evening. This research provides a theoretical framework and empirical data for urban riverside landscape planning and design, significantly advancing urban thermal environment optimization and esthetic quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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23 pages, 7711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Cultural Backgrounds Affect Perceived Restorativeness of Campus Outdoor Spaces: A Pilot Study in China’s Multi-Ethnic Region

by Chanchan Dong, Tian Gao, Ling Qiu, Jiangtao Jiu, Wei Yuan, Tao Xiao and Fucai Liu

Land 2025, 14(4), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14040679 - 23 Mar 2025

Viewed by 376

Abstract

Enhancing the psychological well-being of college students through campus environment design is crucial, particularly in multi-ethnic regions where students’ restoration perceptions may be shaped by their cultural backgrounds. This study investigated the impact of four types of campus outdoor spaces on students’ restorative [...] Read more.

Enhancing the psychological well-being of college students through campus environment design is crucial, particularly in multi-ethnic regions where students’ restoration perceptions may be shaped by their cultural backgrounds. This study investigated the impact of four types of campus outdoor spaces on students’ restorative perceptions in Xinjiang, China’s multi-ethnic region, employing interviews and questionnaires. The results indicated that green and blue spaces had the highest restorative potential. Ethnicity significantly influenced perceived restoration, with Uyghur students exhibiting higher restorative perceptions in gray and green spaces compared to Han students. Uyghur students’ restoration perceptions were more closely associated with cultural displays and social support, and they were more sensitive to spatial types and environmental details. Furthermore, Uyghur students demonstrated higher restorative perceptions during social and reading activities, while Han students benefited more from contemplative activities. In conclusion, campus environment design should take into account ethnic cultural differences and behavioral habits to meet diverse psychological needs. This study offers targeted guidance for optimizing campus environments in Xinjiang, emphasizing the integration of ethnic cultural elements to create a multicultural and supportive campus landscape atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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26 pages, 3878 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Turbulence Theory for the Characterization of the Surface Urban Heat Island Signature

by Gabriel I. Cotlier, Juan Carlos Jimenez and José Antonio Sobrino

Land 2025, 14(3), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030620 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 516

Abstract

Urban heat islands (UHIs) constitute one of the most conspicuous anthropogenic impacts on local climates, characterized by elevated land surface temperatures in urban areas compared to surrounding rural regions. This study represents a novel and comprehensive effort to characterize the spectral signature of [...] Read more.

Urban heat islands (UHIs) constitute one of the most conspicuous anthropogenic impacts on local climates, characterized by elevated land surface temperatures in urban areas compared to surrounding rural regions. This study represents a novel and comprehensive effort to characterize the spectral signature of SUHI through the lens of the two-dimensional (2D) turbulence theory, with a particular focus on identifying energy cascade regimes and their climatic modulation. The theory of two-dimensional (2D) turbulence, first described by Kraichnan and Batchelor, predicts two distinct energy cascade regimes: an inverse energy cascade at larger scales (low wavenumbers) and a direct enstrophy cascade at smaller scales (high wavenumbers). These cascades can be detected and characterized through spatial power spectra analysis, offering a scale-dependent understanding of the SUHI phenomenon. Despite the theoretical appeal, empirical validation of the 2D turbulence hypothesis in urban thermal landscapes remains scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing the spatial power spectra of land surface temperatures across 14 cities representing diverse climatic zones, capturing varied urban morphologies, structures, and materials. We analyzed multi-decadal LST datasets to compute spatial power spectra across summer and winter seasons, identifying spectral breakpoints that separate large-scale energy retention from small-scale dissipative processes. The findings reveal systematic deviations from classical turbulence scaling laws, with spectral slopes before the breakpoint ranging from ~K^−1.6 to ~K^−2.7 in winter and ~K^−1.5 to ~K^−2.4 in summer, while post-breakpoint slopes steepened significantly to ~K^−3.5 to ~K^−4.6 in winter and ~K^−3.3 to ~K^−4.3 in summer. These deviations suggest that urban heat turbulence is modulated by anisotropic surface heterogeneities, mesoscale instabilities, and seasonally dependent energy dissipation mechanisms. Notably, desert and Mediterranean climates exhibited the most pronounced small-scale dissipation, whereas oceanic and humid subtropical cities showed more gradual spectral transitions, likely due to differences in moisture availability and convective mixing. These results underscore the necessity of incorporating turbulence theory into urban climate models to better capture the scale-dependent nature of urban heat exchange. The observed spectral breakpoints offer a diagnostic tool for identifying critical scales at which urban heat mitigation strategies—such as green infrastructure, optimized urban ventilation, and reflective materials—can be most effective. Furthermore, our findings highlight the importance of regional climatic context in shaping urban spectral energy distributions, necessitating climate-specific urban design interventions. By advancing our understanding of urban thermal turbulence, this research contributes to the broader discourse on sustainable urban development and resilience in a warming world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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28 pages, 12877 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

How to Plan Climate-Adaptive Cities: An Experimental Approach to Address Ecosystem Service Loss in Ordinary Planning Processes

by Beatrice Mosso, Andrea Nino and Stefano Salata

Land 2025, 14(3), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030532 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 693

Abstract

Global climate change, combined with socio-economic issues such as conflicts, inflation, energy crises, and inequality, is reshaping urban governance. Cities, which host most of the global population, are highly exposed to climate-related risks, especially those associated with the degradation of ecosystem services. These [...] Read more.

Global climate change, combined with socio-economic issues such as conflicts, inflation, energy crises, and inequality, is reshaping urban governance. Cities, which host most of the global population, are highly exposed to climate-related risks, especially those associated with the degradation of ecosystem services. These risks are manifested, among other factors, as the alteration and degradation of the habitat quality, heightened hydraulic vulnerability, and intensified urban heat islands phenomena. Addressing these challenges requires innovative planning tools to integrate ecosystem-based strategies to enhance urban resilience and support sustainable transformation processes. This paper attempts to do this by introducing ecosystem zoning, an experimental tool designed to integrate ecosystem services into urban planning and its regulatory framework. Applied to the city of Torino, this approach offers a biophysical classification of municipal territory through a mapping of habitat quality, cooling capacity, carbon sequestration, and stormwater retention. The resulting classification provides an overview of the different ecosystem characterizations of the urban fabric and informs site-specific interventions to maintain or enhance ecosystem services and guide urban regeneration processes. By embedding ecosystem services into planning regulations, the project supports sustainable urban development while mitigating climate impacts. The proposed tool contributes to the broader discourse on creating resilient, ecologically sustainable cities and demonstrates the potential of integrating scientific research into urban decision-making processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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24 pages, 4782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Approach to Identifying the Supply and Demand of Urban Park Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Megalopolis Area of Shanghai, China

by Ying Yang, Li Jiang, Xiaoyan Ma, Song Liu and Lihua Wang

Land 2025, 14(3), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030455 - 22 Feb 2025

Viewed by 633

Abstract

Urban parks are vital public spaces that provide cultural ecosystem services (CESs) that enhance the well-being of city dwellers. As the demand for CESs has greatly increased, the imbalance between CES supply and demand has become prominent. Accurately identifying whether the supply of [...] Read more.

Urban parks are vital public spaces that provide cultural ecosystem services (CESs) that enhance the well-being of city dwellers. As the demand for CESs has greatly increased, the imbalance between CES supply and demand has become prominent. Accurately identifying whether the supply of CESs meets the demand supports urban park planning and management. However, the CES supply–demand gap lies not only in the quantitative resource deficits, but also in the spatial mismatch between supply and demand. At present, scientific quantification methods for urban park CES supply and demand that comprehensively consider both quantitative and spatial relationships remain inadequate. To fill this gap, we propose an integrated framework that combines spatial and quantitative analysis to identify the supply and demand of urban park CESs, using Shanghai as the study area. The framework consists of three major steps: (1) mapping the CES supply and demand of urban parks; (2) identifying the CES supply–demand relationship by combining quantitative analysis through bivariate mapping with spatial analysis using spatial statistics; (3) categorizing the supply–demand relationship into four scenarios based on quantity balance and spatial matching, with three corresponding planning proposals. The results show that 136 sub-districts belong to the quantity balance and space matching type, while 79 sub-districts belonging to the imbalanced quantities type, including 41 belonging to the quantity imbalance and space mismatching type. Notably, only 15 sub-districts face a situation where supply is less than demand. Our findings provide a solid basis for identifying key areas of CES supply–demand conflict and prioritizing targeted planning interventions. This approach not only improves the efficiency of CES provision, but also addresses the growing demand for high-quality CESs in rapidly urbanizing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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38 pages, 82510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Morphological Factors on Thermal Environment and Thermal Comfort in Riverside Open Spaces of Shanghai, China

by Li Jiang, Shoushuai Du, Song Liu, Yuxiang Dong and Ying Yang

Land 2025, 14(2), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020433 - 19 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 536

Abstract

The thermal environment of urban riverside open spaces is crucial for enhancing outdoor comfort and well-being, especially amid extreme heat events caused by global warming and Urban Heat Islands (UHIs). Although significant progress has been made in this area, existing research still has [...] Read more.

The thermal environment of urban riverside open spaces is crucial for enhancing outdoor comfort and well-being, especially amid extreme heat events caused by global warming and Urban Heat Islands (UHIs). Although significant progress has been made in this area, existing research still has some limitations. This study employed a scenario-based numerical simulation approach to investigate the combined impacts of spatial morphology and wind direction on the thermal environment and thermal comfort (TETC) in riverside districts along the Huangpu River in Shanghai. Focusing on two prototypes—O and SO types—we identified key factors influencing TETC, including tree canopy coverage, vegetation layout, building density, and building height. The findings also reveal that dense canopies and thoughtful building layout significantly enhance daytime thermal comfort, while controlled building height and increased riverbank distance are effective strategies for nighttime comfort. This study highlights the importance of considering both landscape morphology and wind conditions in climate-adaptive planning and design for urban riverside areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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18 pages, 16523 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Value of County-Level Ecosystem Services in Highly Mountainous Canyon Areas Based on Land Use Change: Analysis of Spatiotemporal Evolution Characteristics and Spatial Stability

by Linrui Zhang, Kanhua Yu, Yue Zhang, Jiabin Wei, Wenting Yang and Xuhui Wang

Land 2025, 14(2), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020398 - 14 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 460

Abstract

Human activities and climate change have accelerated land use and land cover change (LUCC) globally, diminishing the ecosystem service value (ESV) in ecologically fragile areas such as highly mountainous canyons and disrupting the human–nature balance. However, existing research lacks analysis on the impact [...] Read more.

Human activities and climate change have accelerated land use and land cover change (LUCC) globally, diminishing the ecosystem service value (ESV) in ecologically fragile areas such as highly mountainous canyons and disrupting the human–nature balance. However, existing research lacks analysis on the impact of land use changes on ecosystem service value in typical counties with highly mountainous canyon regions. Therefore, we aim to address this gap by analyzing land use changes and their driving factors in Chayu County using multi-year land use data, calculating the ecosystem service value (ESV) for different periods, and estimating its spatial correlation and stability. The results showed the following: (1) Forestland and grassland were the predominant land-use types, with notable conversions between grassland and water bodies, grassland and unused land, and water bodies and unused land. (2) The total ESV increased steadily from 2003 to 2023, with higher values in the north and west and lower values in the central east. Forestland and water areas were the primary contributors to ESV changes, and ESV sensitivity to LUCC steadily increased from 0.46% to 2.49%. (3) Moran’s I ESV shows an overall increase, with a heightened correlation and enhanced stability. Spatially, the ESV exhibited a general high–high and low–low clustering pattern, with localized high–low and low–high clusters. These changes, driven by natural resource endowments and climate change, provide essential support for ecological protection and sustainable development in highly mountainous canyons and similar regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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22 pages, 17413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Changes and Driving Mechanisms of Ecosystem Service Supply–Demand Contradictions Under Urbanization

by Hengkang Zhao, Xinyu Zhang, Wenqi Lu, Chenlin Wei, Dan He, Yakai Lei and Klaudia Borowiak

Land 2024, 13(11), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13111884 - 11 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1013

Abstract

Clarifying the driving mechanisms of ecosystem service (ES) supply and demand under urbanization is of significant importance for urban ecological planning and management. However, how the balance of ES supply and demand and its driving mechanisms vary with the degree of urbanization has [...] Read more.

Clarifying the driving mechanisms of ecosystem service (ES) supply and demand under urbanization is of significant importance for urban ecological planning and management. However, how the balance of ES supply and demand and its driving mechanisms vary with the degree of urbanization has been little studied. In this study, we analyzed the spatiotemporal changes and the correlations between ES supply and demand and the degree of urbanization in the Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area (ZZMA) from 2000 to 2020 and further explored the driving mechanisms behind these changes. The results showed that, (1) between 2000 and 2020, the ZZMA experienced a deficit in comprehensive ES supply and demand, and regions with rapid urbanization development were more likely to trigger imbalances in ES supply and demand; (2) the spatial mismatch between low–high ES supply and demand was primarily distributed in the built-up areas of various cities, while the high–low spatial mismatch was mostly found in forest and grassland areas; (3) the comprehensive urbanization level of the ZZMA was spatially negatively correlated with the ratio of ES supply and demand. Regions with lower ES balance were more susceptible to disturbances caused by urbanization; (4) population density was the key factor influencing the supply and demand of carbon sequestration, oxygen release, water conservation, and food provision services, while the proportions of forest land and construction areas had the greatest influence on the supply and demand of air purification and leisure services. It is important to ensure the ecological status of the northwestern, southwestern, and central mountainous and forested areas; maintain the agricultural status of the main grain-producing areas in the eastern plains; strengthen ecological restoration and green infrastructure in built-up areas; and formulate differentiated management policies to promote the sustainable supply of ES and safeguard the ecological security of the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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23 pages, 7420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying and Mapping the Cooling Effect and Equity of Urban Parks during Extreme Heat Events in Coastal Cities

by Wenru Li, Tianji Wu, Le Xuan, Keke Zhu, Lemin Yu, Yong Wang, Xuhui Wang and Kanhua Yu

Land 2024, 13(10), 1607; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13101607 - 3 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1297

Abstract

Urban parks are vital for mitigating high urban temperatures, yet optimizing their design for maximum cooling benefits remains a challenge. This study investigates the cooling mechanisms of 65 parks in Tianjin, assessing their characteristics and spatial equity regarding cooling capacity. Results show that [...] Read more.

Urban parks are vital for mitigating high urban temperatures, yet optimizing their design for maximum cooling benefits remains a challenge. This study investigates the cooling mechanisms of 65 parks in Tianjin, assessing their characteristics and spatial equity regarding cooling capacity. Results show that 63 parks significantly lower temperatures, with an average Park Cooling Area (PCA) of 45.0 hectares, Park Cooling Efficiency (PCE) of 8.09, Park Cooling Gradient (PCG) of 16.4 °C/km, and Park Cooling Intensity (PCI) of 2.64 °C. Key factors influencing cooling effectiveness include park albedo and nearby water bodies, with optimal albedo values between 3 and 3.6, and water bodies of at least 2.5 hectares enhancing efficiency. Notably, only 38.9% of residents can easily access park cooling services. While neighborhood parks in dense urban areas provide high economic benefits, they serve fewer residents; comprehensive parks cover more people but are less accessible. This study offers new insights into the cooling effects of coastal urban parks, aiding planners in addressing marginalized residents’ needs and enhancing urban resilience amid climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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25 pages, 9415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Seasonal Variation and the Driving Mechanism of the Thermal Effects of Urban Park Green Spaces in Zhengzhou, China

by Yuan Feng, Kaihua Zhang, Ang Li, Yangyang Zhang, Kun Wang, Nan Guo, Ho Yi Wan, Xiaoyang Tan, Nalin Dong, Xin Xu, Ruizhen He, Bing Wang, Long Fan, Shidong Ge and Peihao Song

Land 2024, 13(9), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091474 - 11 Sep 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1774

Abstract

Greenscaping, a key sustainable practice, helps cities combat rising temperatures and climate change. Urban parks, a pivotal greenscaping element, mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect. In this study, we utilized high-resolution remote sensing imagery (GF-2 and Landsat 8, 9) and in situ [...] Read more.

Greenscaping, a key sustainable practice, helps cities combat rising temperatures and climate change. Urban parks, a pivotal greenscaping element, mitigate the urban heat island (UHI) effect. In this study, we utilized high-resolution remote sensing imagery (GF-2 and Landsat 8, 9) and in situ measurements to analyze the seasonal thermal regulation of different park types in Zhengzhou, China. We calculated vegetation characteristic indices (VCIs) and landscape patterns (LMs) and employed boosted regression tree models to explore their relative contributions to land surface temperature (LST) across different seasons. Our findings revealed that urban parks lowered temperatures by 0.65 °C, 1.41 °C, and 2.84 °C in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, but raised them by 1.92 °C in winter. Amusement parks, comprehensive parks, large parks, and water-themed parks had significantly lower LSTs. The VCI significantly influenced LST in autumn, with trees having a stronger cooling effect than shrubs. LMs showed a more prominent effect than VCIs on LST during spring, summer, and winter. Parks with longer perimeters, larger and more dispersed green patches, higher plant species richness, higher vegetation heights, and larger canopies were associated with more efficient thermal reduction in an urban setting. The novelty of this study lies in its detailed analysis of the seasonal thermal regulation effects of different types of urban parks, providing new insights for more effective urban greenspace planning and management. Our findings assist urban managers in mitigating the urban surface heat effect through more effective urban greenspace planning, vegetation community design, and maintenance, thereby enhancing cities’ potential resilience to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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Graphical abstract

24 pages, 49494 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Meta-Connectivity in Urban Morphology: A Deep Generative Approach for Integrating Human–Wildlife Landscape Connectivity in Urban Design

by Sheng-Yang Huang, Yuankai Wang, Enriqueta Llabres-Valls, Mochen Jiang and Fei Chen

Land 2024, 13(9), 1397; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091397 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1199

Abstract

Traditional urban design often overlooks the synchronisation of human and ecological connectivities, typically favouring corridors for ecological continuity. Our study challenges this convention by introducing a computational design approach, meta-connectivity, leveraging the deep generative models performing cross-domain translation to integrate human–wildlife landscape connectivity [...] Read more.

Traditional urban design often overlooks the synchronisation of human and ecological connectivities, typically favouring corridors for ecological continuity. Our study challenges this convention by introducing a computational design approach, meta-connectivity, leveraging the deep generative models performing cross-domain translation to integrate human–wildlife landscape connectivity in urban morphology amidst the planetary urbanisation. Utilising chained Pix2Pix models, our research illustrates a novel meta-connectivity design reasoning framework, combining landscape connectivity modelling with conditional reasoning based on deep generative models. This framework enables the adjustment of both human and wildlife landscape connectivities based on their correlative patterns in one single design process, guiding the rematerialisation of urban landscapes without the need for explicit prior ecological or urban data. Our empirical study in East London demonstrated the framework’s efficacy in suggesting wildlife connectivity adjustments based on human connectivity metrics. The results demonstrate the feasibility of creating an innovative urban form in which the land cover guided by the connectivity gradients replaces the corridors based on simple geometries. This research thus presents a methodology shift in urban design, proposing a symbiotic approach to integrating disparate yet interrelated landscape connectivities within urban contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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19 pages, 9980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Key Factors Affecting Carbon-Saving Intensity and Efficiency Based on the Structure of Green Space

by Guohao Zhang, Chenyu Du and Shidong Ge

Land 2024, 13(8), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081297 - 16 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1178

Abstract

Urban green spaces (UGSs) play a critical role in regulating global carbon cycling and mitigating the increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Research increasingly demonstrates that UGSs not only sequester carbon through photosynthesis but also effectively save carbon emissions by mitigating the urban [...] Read more.

Urban green spaces (UGSs) play a critical role in regulating global carbon cycling and mitigating the increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Research increasingly demonstrates that UGSs not only sequester carbon through photosynthesis but also effectively save carbon emissions by mitigating the urban heat island (UHI) effect. However, understanding the carbon-saving capacity (CSC) and the role of landscape patterns of UGSs in warming cities remains limited. Therefore, we have evaluated the carbon-saving capacity of UGSs in the main urban area of Shangqiu City by utilizing high-resolution remote sensing data and machine learning techniques. The study has focused on green patches larger than 10,000 m² and has analyzed the influence of landscape patterns of UGSs on carbon saving intensity (CSI) and carbon saving efficiency (CSE). The results reveal that the total CSI and the average CSE of UGSs are 7716 t CO₂ and 2.9 t CO₂ ha⁻¹ in Shangqiu, respectively. Landscape patterns of UGSs can explain 82% and 64% of the variability in CSI and CSE variance, respectively. Specifically, green space area is the critical determinant of CSI and CSE, followed by the perimeter–area ratio, shape index, and fractal dimension of UGSs. Therefore, this study advocates for the strategic integration of UGSs into city planning, emphasizing their spatial distribution and configuration to maximize their cooling and carbon-saving capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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20 pages, 2082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Design Factors and Multi-Stage Environmental Factors on Hydrological Performance of Subtropical Green Roofs

by Zhongtang Liao, Jialin Liu and Yufei Li

Land 2024, 13(8), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081129 - 24 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 811

Abstract

Environmental and design factors determine the stormwater management capacity of green roofs; however, the design and environmental factors that impact their hydrological performance in subtropical humid regions are poorly understood. In particular, meteorological factors have received little attention. Meteorological factors vary greatly at [...] Read more.

Environmental and design factors determine the stormwater management capacity of green roofs; however, the design and environmental factors that impact their hydrological performance in subtropical humid regions are poorly understood. In particular, meteorological factors have received little attention. Meteorological factors vary greatly at different stages of a rainfall event (e.g., during the rainfall and outflow). Therefore, the impact of meteorological factors at different stages on hydrological performance should be considered separately to obtain a more accurate picture of their effects on hydrological performance. In this study, experimental green roofs were established based on four substrate types and two depths. For the first time, this study systematically explored the effects of design factors for the substrate (type and depth) and multi-stage environmental factors on the hydrological performance of green roofs. Environmental factors, including meteorological factors, from three critical stages (before and during a rainfall event and during the outflow), and rainfall characteristics (e.g., rainfall depth and rainfall duration) were incorporated to determine the variation in hydrological performance. The effects of multi-stage environmental factors on retention and peak reduction were analyzed, with a ranking of each factor’s relative importance. Environmental factors played a leading role in determining hydrological performance. However, the impact of multi-stage environmental factors was not as important as that of rainfall depth and antecedent volumetric water content. Differences in hydrological performance were compared across combinations of design factors. No significant differences were observed across substrate types and depths. However, potential interactive effects might exist, though these were not significant compared to environmental factors (e.g., rainfall depth and rainfall duration). These results confirmed that the meteorological factors in the different event-related stages significantly impacted the hydrological performance. Quantifying the effects of design and environmental factors is critical for hydrological performance evaluation. The results provided a broader perspective on understanding influence mechanisms of hydrological performance and highlighted the impact of microclimates on hydrological performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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18 pages, 7729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Fire Risk Dynamics and Mitigation Strategies in Shanghai: Integrating Spatial Analysis and Game Theory

by Manqing Yao, Deshun Zhang, Yingying Chen, Yujia Liu and Mohamed Elsadek

Land 2024, 13(8), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081125 - 24 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1523

Abstract

In recent decades, the increasing frequency of urban fires, driven by urban functional enhancements and climate change, has posed a growing threat to metropolitan sustainability. This study investigates the temporal and spatial characteristics of fire incidents in Shanghai from 2019 to 2023. Using [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the increasing frequency of urban fires, driven by urban functional enhancements and climate change, has posed a growing threat to metropolitan sustainability. This study investigates the temporal and spatial characteristics of fire incidents in Shanghai from 2019 to 2023. Using satellite fire point data and official government records, kernel density analysis and wavelet analysis were employed to analyze the time series and spatial distribution of fire data. Subsequently, eleven primary factors influencing urban fire occurrence were identified, encompassing probability, regional characteristics, and hazard sources. A combined methodology of subjective and objective weights with game theory was used to generate a fire risk assessment at a 1 × 1 km² grid scale. Furthermore, the spatial distribution characteristics of the assessments were analyzed. The results reveal that the downtown area exhibits the highest intensity of urban fires in terms of spatial domain, with a decreasing intensity towards the suburbs. Temporally, fire frequency demonstrates significant periodicity at an 18a time scale, while clear seasonal fluctuations and periodicity are observed at a 16-22a time scale, with higher occurrences in spring and winter. The study identifies typical aggregation patterns of urban fires, with high-risk centers in downtown Shanghai. Considering the impact of climate change and human activities, high-risk areas may gradually expand to adjacent urban suburbs, presenting a concerning future scenario. By examining the dual attributes of “combustibles and fireproof space” within urban greening systems, this research offers recommendations for the future strategies of disaster prevention and mitigation of green systems in Shanghai. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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16 pages, 5596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Plan Urban Parks and the Surrounding Buildings to Maximize the Cooling Effect: A Case Study in Xi’an, China

by Tianji Wu, Xuhui Wang, Le Xuan, Zhaoyang Yan, Chao Wang, Chunlei Du, Yutong Su, Jingya Duan and Kanhua Yu

Land 2024, 13(8), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081117 - 23 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1606

Abstract

Urban areas with parks tend to have the best outdoor thermal comfort in regions with high urban heat island effects during summer. This study analyzed the synergistic cooling effects of 94 urban parks and the adjacent built-up areas in six districts of Xi’an [...] Read more.

Urban areas with parks tend to have the best outdoor thermal comfort in regions with high urban heat island effects during summer. This study analyzed the synergistic cooling effects of 94 urban parks and the adjacent built-up areas in six districts of Xi’an City using four cooling indicators: park cooling intensity (PCI), park cooling area (PCA), park cooling effect (PCE), and park cooling gradient (PCG). The results showed that 84 out of 94 parks exhibited significant cooling effects, with an average PCI of 1.98 °C, PCA of 51.7 ha, PCE of 6.6, and PCG of 8.2 °C/km. Correlation analyses indicated that the intrinsic park attributes, external buffer zone building height, and building density were the main factors affecting the cooling effect. The park landscape configuration, building height, and density significantly influenced the PCI and PCG, while the park shape and size were crucial for the PCA (positive) and PCE (negative). The optimal park areas for improving the thermal environment were identified as 26 ha (cooling area focus, building density <13%) and 15 ha (cooling intensity focus, building height <21 m, density >32%). This study provides theoretical guidance for planning urban parks and the surrounding areas based on cooling effects, offering insights for future climate resilience planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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30 pages, 10387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calculation of the Optimal Scale of Urban Green Space for Alleviating Surface Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study of Xi’an, China

by Jianxin Zhang, Jingyuan Zhao, Bo Pang and Sisi Liu

Land 2024, 13(7), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071043 - 11 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1441

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that urban green spaces play a crucial role in mitigating the severe urban heat island (UHI) effect. However, existing studies often suffer from limitations such as the neglect of the cooling effect of water bodies within the green spaces and [...] Read more.

Research has demonstrated that urban green spaces play a crucial role in mitigating the severe urban heat island (UHI) effect. However, existing studies often suffer from limitations such as the neglect of the cooling effect of water bodies within the green spaces and incomplete considerations of the overall cooling effect. These limitations may lead to inaccuracies in the research findings. Therefore, the present study takes the city of Xi’an as a case study to explore the optimal green space size for achieving efficient cooling. The results indicate that (i) urban green spaces exhibit robust cooling effects, with variations observed among the various types; (ii) for community parks without water, and for street gardens, the optimal areas of these green spaces are 3.44 and 0.83 hectares, respectively; (iii) for community parks with water, the area of internal water bodies should ideally be maintained at around 29.43% of the total green space area in order to achieve an optimal cooling efficiency. In conclusion, this study introduces a new perspective and new optimization methods for urban green space planning, thereby offering scientific guidance to urban planners in formulating effective development and management policies and urban planning schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urbanscapes: The Role of Green Infrastructure on the Resilience of Ecosystem Services)

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