Journal of Eye Movement Research

27 pages, 31095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Presentation Form and Presentation Timing in AR-HUD Takeover Displays on Driver Visual Attention: An Eye-Tracking Study

by Kexin Chen, Junfeng Li and Mo Chen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040092 - 20 Aug 2026

Abstract

Level 3 automated driving necessitates rapid driver reengagement following a takeover request, making human–machine interface design critical for safety. As a sensor-based in-vehicle interface, the augmented reality head-up display (AR-HUD) integrates real-time environmental sensing with visual information delivery, yet how different information presentation [...] Read more.

Level 3 automated driving necessitates rapid driver reengagement following a takeover request, making human–machine interface design critical for safety. As a sensor-based in-vehicle interface, the augmented reality head-up display (AR-HUD) integrates real-time environmental sensing with visual information delivery, yet how different information presentation strategies influence driver visual attention during takeover remains underexplored. We examined the effects of presentation form (static/dynamic) and presentation timing (concurrent/progressive) using a 2 × 2 within-subject design. In the experiment, twenty-one licensed drivers viewed prerecorded automated driving takeover scenarios. Eye tracking measured mean fixation duration, mean saccade amplitude, time to first fixation, and fixation count, while ratings assessed usability, acceptance, and intention comprehension. Progressive presentation significantly reduced all eye-tracking measures and improved perceived usability ratings compared with concurrent presentation. This pattern indicates more concentrated and orderly gaze allocation and is consistent with lower visual-search and information-integration demands. However, the lower fixation count may partly reflect reduced information exposure. Static presentation reduced mean fixation duration but showed no consistent overall advantage on the remaining measures. Significant form-by-timing interactions showed that progressive presentation reduced saccade amplitude and time to first fixation and improved intention comprehension under static, but not dynamic, presentation. Among the four combinations, static-progressive presentation yielded the most favorable overall pattern. Overall, presentation timing affected more measured outcomes than presentation form. These findings provide preliminary evidence that presentation form and presentation timing shape gaze behavior and subjective evaluations of AR-HUD takeover displays. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

25 pages, 2234 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eye and Gaze Behavior During Human Disassembly Procedures: Effects of Task Conditions and Process Dynamics

by Manuel Zaremski and Barbara Deml

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040091 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Manual disassembly is a key process in remanufacturing and circular-economy systems, yet it is often characterized by uncertainty, varying product conditions and non-standardized action sequences. Eye tracking provides a process-oriented methodology for examining how such tasks are visually guided, with implications for human [...] Read more.

Manual disassembly is a key process in remanufacturing and circular-economy systems, yet it is often characterized by uncertainty, varying product conditions and non-standardized action sequences. Eye tracking provides a process-oriented methodology for examining how such tasks are visually guided, with implications for human behavior analysis, operator support, and automation design. The present study investigated the potential of specific eye and gaze metrics to reflect differences in task condition and process dynamics during human disassembly. These were analyzed using a dimension-based mixed-effect modeling approach, accounting for task condition, handcraft skill levels, and task duration across repeated observations within participants, addressing four dimensions: visual attention allocation, cognitive workload, scanpath structure, and gaze organization. The results showed that increased task uncertainty was most associated with shorter fixation durations, higher fixation rates, larger pupil diameters, and higher revisit rates, indicating intensified visual sampling, increased cognitive workload, and repeated checking behavior. No robust differences were observed between skill levels. A longer task duration, as an indirect proxy of less routine-like execution, was primarily reflected in fixation dynamics and scanpath structure, rather than in entropy or workload measures. The findings demonstrate the sensitivity of eye and gaze metrics to task uncertainty and process dynamics in disassembly. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2374 KB

Open AccessArticle

Layered Development of Visual Search Expertise in Architects

by Spencer Ivy, K. Hudson Guttman, Trafton Drew and Jeanine K. Stefanucci

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040090 - 17 Aug 2026

Abstract

It is widely proposed that perceptual expertise is characterized by an increased reliance on peripheral visual information during search, as described by Holistic Visual Processing (HVP) theory. HVP predicts that experts make longer saccades to construct a holistic representation of the visual scene [...] Read more.

It is widely proposed that perceptual expertise is characterized by an increased reliance on peripheral visual information during search, as described by Holistic Visual Processing (HVP) theory. HVP predicts that experts make longer saccades to construct a holistic representation of the visual scene and facilitate target detection. Our previous work challenged this prediction by showing that expert architects made shorter, rather than longer, saccades during visual search. The present study investigated how this atypical search strategy develops by comparing expert architects, intermediate architects, and naïve observers performing the same visual search task. Intermediate architects exhibited shorter saccades than naïve observers, but not to the extent observed in experts, while demonstrating search efficiency intermediate to the two groups. Analyses of the temporal organization of search further revealed that intermediate architects had already adopted the overall structure of the expert search strategy despite not yet exhibiting expert-level reductions in saccadic amplitude. These findings suggest that perceptual expertise in architecture develops through a layered progression in which the organization of visual search precedes the full refinement of eye movement behavior. More broadly, these findings suggest that eye movement research should interpret gaze metrics such as saccadic amplitude within the context of domain-specific task demands and developmental stage, while considering the temporal organization of search as an additional window into the emergence of perceptual expertise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future Challenges of Eye Tracking Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 13214 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Source Attribution Visualization Shapes User Attention and Preference: An Eye-Tracking Study of Four AI Chatbot Layouts

by Junho Cho and Dokshin Lim

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040089 - 14 Aug 2026

Abstract

As generative AI chatbots become a primary information channel, users increasingly accept answers without verification, and citations can raise trust even when sources are irrelevant or fabricated. How source-attribution visualization shapes the visual preconditions of verification remains unknown: users can notice, read, or [...] Read more.

As generative AI chatbots become a primary information channel, users increasingly accept answers without verification, and citations can raise trust even when sources are irrelevant or fabricated. How source-attribution visualization shapes the visual preconditions of verification remains unknown: users can notice, read, or compare a source without clicking. This within-subjects eye-tracking study (N = 23; 92 trials) evaluated four attribution visualizations abstracted from commercial AI chatbots and rendered as simulated screens: inline component (sentence-end chips), card list (cards above the answer), side panel (adjacent panel), and raw hyperlink (bare URLs), combining gaze metrics, surveys, and interviews. Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed strong layout effects on source discoverability and engagement, largely robust to sensitivity checks (the panel’s discovery latency was order-sensitive): the card list was discovered almost immediately, with the raw hyperlink last. Yet no self-reported measure differed detectably. The most frequently nominated format, the inline component, attracted about half the dwell time of the stand-alone formats, whose prolonged fixations suggested citation-to-text mapping cost rather than genuine engagement. This attention–preference gap means both must be measured jointly. We contribute a four-layout gaze-based comparison, a reproducible participant-level analysis workflow, and three design principles (pre-click identifiability, sentence-level claim–source mapping, and in situ preview) within a proposed two-stage attribution architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

36 pages, 8104 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncertainty-Aware General Gaze Following via Circular Direction Distribution Learning and Probabilistic Gaze Geometry Modeling

by Yanzhao Li, Jin Li, Xiaona Zhang and Hong Liang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040088 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

General gaze following aims to infer the region attended to by a person within a natural scene and offers a computational perspective on visual attention and social scene understanding. Existing direction-guided methods usually reduce gaze direction to a single vector or spatial mask. [...] Read more.

General gaze following aims to infer the region attended to by a person within a natural scene and offers a computational perspective on visual attention and social scene understanding. Existing direction-guided methods usually reduce gaze direction to a single vector or spatial mask. This deterministic treatment can obscure directional ambiguity, discard coexisting candidate directions, and propagate early estimation errors to gaze target localization when head cues are weak or multiple targets are plausible. To address these limitations, we propose an uncertainty-aware framework based on Circular Direction Distribution Learning (CDDL) and Probabilistic Gaze Geometry Modeling (PGGM). CDDL represents gaze direction as a 72-bin circular probability distribution under von Mises soft supervision, thereby preserving neighboring directional hypotheses before target localization. Rather than predicting a target space distribution directly, PGGM aggregates the direction distribution into 18 groups and projects the retained hypotheses into cone-like spatial probability fields, allowing spatial tolerance to expand with distance while preserving a channel-wise direction-to-region representation. The full probability volume is fused with the RGB scene image at the input level and processed by a ResNet-50-FPN network for gaze heatmap prediction. Controlled experiments on GazeFollow demonstrate competitive localization and support the contribution of direction-distribution learning and channel-wise geometric projection. Zero-shot transfer, dataset-level uncertainty and failure analyses, efficiency measurements, and qualitative results further indicate interpretable behavior together with domain-dependent and computational trade-offs. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

29 pages, 2651 KB

Open AccessArticle

Visual Attention and Strategic Sophistication in the Strategic Environment Effect: An Eye-Tracking Approach

by Yukihiko Funaki, Yukio Koriyama, Ayano Nakagawa and Ali I. Ozkes

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040087 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

This study investigates how strategic environments shape a decision maker’s reasoning processes by incorporating visual attention and cognitive engagement. Using eye-tracking methods within experimental guessing games featuring interior equilibria, we analyze how strategic complementarity and substitutability alter choice behavior and cognitive engagement. We [...] Read more.

This study investigates how strategic environments shape a decision maker’s reasoning processes by incorporating visual attention and cognitive engagement. Using eye-tracking methods within experimental guessing games featuring interior equilibria, we analyze how strategic complementarity and substitutability alter choice behavior and cognitive engagement. We find that while choices diverge further from equilibrium under strategic complementarity, eye gaze metrics—specifically fixation and transition measures—are consistent with more intensive cognitive engagement under strategic substitutability. Furthermore, by using a novel approach to measure strategic sophistication, we find that individuals with higher strategic aptitude exhibit higher levels of visual engagement with the payoff table. As strategic sophistication increases, the two distinct dimensions of attention build up sequentially rather than together, with attention to an individual’s own strategies strengthening prior to attention to their opponents’. These findings indicate that visual attention is shaped systematically by the strategic environment and are consistent with a sequential organization of reasoning that may underlie the strategic environment effect. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1522 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Distance Ocular Deviation After Smartphone Viewing in Young Adults Without Manifest Strabismus

by Miharu Mihara, Noriko Katayama, Ken Kakeue, Mitsuya Otsuka, Kazuichi Maruyama and Atsushi Hayashi

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040086 - 12 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: This prospective observational study assessed acute changes in distance ocular deviation after brief smartphone viewing in young adults without manifest strabismus and identified factors associated with the magnitude of change. Methods: Fifty-nine healthy young adults without strabismus (aged 20–30 years; mean ± [...] Read more.

Background: This prospective observational study assessed acute changes in distance ocular deviation after brief smartphone viewing in young adults without manifest strabismus and identified factors associated with the magnitude of change. Methods: Fifty-nine healthy young adults without strabismus (aged 20–30 years; mean ± standard deviation, 23.2 ± 2.5 years) wore a head-mounted eye-tracking system and viewed a smartphone for 30 min. Ocular deviation angles at near and distance fixation were measured immediately before and after smartphone viewing. During smartphone viewing, eye-movement parameters and smartphone distance were continuously recorded. Results: Before smartphone viewing, the mean deviation angles were −6.2 ± 6.8^Δ and −2.0 ± 2.8^Δ at near and distance fixation, respectively (negative values indicate exodeviation). After smartphone viewing, deviation angles shifted toward less exodeviation, measuring −4.3 ± 6.6^Δ and −1.1 ± 2.4^Δ at near and distance fixation, respectively. The magnitude of exodeviation reduction was negatively correlated with baseline ocular deviation, indicating that individuals with larger pre-viewing exodeviation exhibited greater alignment shifts after smartphone viewing. Eye-movement analysis revealed that gaze movements of <30°/s accounted for 57.8% of detected gaze-movement events. Conclusions: Thirty minutes of smartphone viewing was followed by a reduction in exodeviation at near and distance fixation in young adults without manifest strabismus. Greater baseline exodeviation was associated with a larger reduction, and low-velocity gaze movements predominated. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 13731 KB

Open AccessArticle

Participant-Independent Classification of Autism-Related Visual Attention Patterns from Eye-Tracking Scanpath Images Using a Global–Local Fusion Network

by Kun Zhang, Junling Kong, Junhui Zhang, Shuo Zhang and Jingying Chen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040085 - 10 Aug 2026

Abstract

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical patterns of visual attention allocation and social-cue processing. Eye-tracking scanpath (ETSP) retains information about fixation points, saccade paths and their temporal changes in the form of images, providing an intuitive and computable data representation [...] Read more.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical patterns of visual attention allocation and social-cue processing. Eye-tracking scanpath (ETSP) retains information about fixation points, saccade paths and their temporal changes in the form of images, providing an intuitive and computable data representation for analyzing ASD-related visual attention patterns. However, in ASD auxiliary identification studies, the same participant often generates multiple eye-tracking recordings or multiple visual representation samples. If participant independence is not properly considered during model evaluation, the training and test sets may share individualized eye-movement patterns from the same child. In such cases, the model may learn subject-specific characteristics rather than stable and transferable ASD-related visual attention features, leading to an overestimation of its recognition ability on unseen participants. To address this issue, we propose a Global–Local Collaborative Fusion Network (GLCF-Net) under a strict participant-independent splitting protocol. Specifically, the proposed method first maps ETSP images into patch token sequences through a shared Patch Embedding layer. A CNN-based local branch is then used to extract local trajectory morphology, path density, and spatial neighborhood structure, while a ViT-based global branch models cross-region gaze transitions and the overall attention distribution. Finally, a gated adaptive fusion module dynamically integrates local and global information to enhance the representation of stable visual attention features. In the primary repeated stratified five-fold participant-level evaluation, averaging the two out-of-fold probabilities for each participant yielded an Accuracy of 87.0% and a ROC-AUC of 93.7%; the original participant split, retained as a secondary analysis, yielded an Accuracy of 83.52% and a ROC-AUC of 90.27%. Under the reported frozen-backbone configurations, the model also showed a balanced pattern across Accuracy, Recall, and F1-score. These results characterize performance for unseen participants within the same dataset and acquisition conditions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Exhibit Text Presentation Types on Visual Attention Patterns and Cognitive Load in Digital Museums: An Eye-Tracking Study

by Yingying Zhu, Ming Liu, Yinghuang Luo, Xuanjia Ren and Jinho Yim

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040084 - 3 Aug 2026

Abstract

Exhibit texts are commonly presented as labels or information panels near artworks to provide visitors with direct access to key exhibit information. Digital museums offer flexible and diverse ways to present artworks and communicate their cultural meanings. They also allow exhibit texts to [...] Read more.

Exhibit texts are commonly presented as labels or information panels near artworks to provide visitors with direct access to key exhibit information. Digital museums offer flexible and diverse ways to present artworks and communicate their cultural meanings. They also allow exhibit texts to be displayed in different formats, which may shape users’ reading behavior and cognitive experience. This study used a repeated-measures, within-subject design (N = 38) to compare three types of exhibit text presentation: environment-based, object-based, and user-based. Eye tracking, the NASA Task Load Index, and semi-structured interviews were used to examine the users’ visual attention patterns and cognitive load. The results showed significant differences in cognitive load across presentation conditions (p < 0.05), with the object-based layout associated with relatively higher cognitive load and more active visual behavior. These findings provide empirical evidence on how exhibit text presentation affects visitors’ experience in digital museums and offer design implications for textual information in digital reading environments. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2335 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deaf Child Signers’ Reading Behaviors Are Predicted by Their Bilingual (Signed and Spoken) Vocabularies: Evidence from Eye-Tracking

by Frances G. Cooley and David Quinto-Pozos

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040083 - 3 Aug 2026

Abstract

Deaf children who acquire a signed language at home and at school prior to learning to read are a unique group of developing bilinguals. They are first-language users of a signed language (e.g., American Sign Language; ASL) and second-language users of the written [...] Read more.

Deaf children who acquire a signed language at home and at school prior to learning to read are a unique group of developing bilinguals. They are first-language users of a signed language (e.g., American Sign Language; ASL) and second-language users of the written form of the ambient spoken language (e.g., English). Because signed languages do not possess orthographies that are widely used, deaf readers typically read in their second language. This profile stands in contrast to hearing bilingual readers, who read in their first language and, sometimes, their second language. In studies of child readers, vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading comprehension for both monolinguals and bilinguals. We combine the unique linguistic backgrounds of young signing deaf readers with what is known about vocabulary knowledge and reading, guided by the following research question: Does signed (L1) and spoken (L2) vocabulary knowledge predict reading (eye-gaze) behaviors of deaf children when reading in their L2? We present results from an exploratory pilot eye-tracking study of nine deaf ASL-English bilingual children ages 9–11, examining whether ASL and English vocabulary knowledge predict different aspects of the reading paradigm. Results suggest that ASL vocabulary predicts where-decisions and measures of oculomotor control such as skipping and regressions, while English vocabulary predicts when-decisions and first-pass durations. We suggest these results from this small-scale study provide initial support for the language interdependence hypothesis because deaf child signers’ first-language vocabulary knowledge predicts some of the variance in second-language reading performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Movements in Reading and Related Difficulties)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 1296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regressive Saccades During Reading: Effects of Target Distance and the Role of Individual Differences in Spatial Memory and Linguistic Skill

by Anne Friede, Christian Vorstius, Albrecht Inhoff and Ralph Radach

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040082 - 3 Aug 2026

Abstract

The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went [...] Read more.

The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went back to check the corresponding target word for spelling errors that had been added after reading. The regression target was located either close to or far from the probe. Consistent with prior work, initial regressions were larger for far than for near targets, and the finding of far targets required more eye movements and more search time. We replicated previous descriptions of visuomotor regression strategies but also discovered a novel strategy in which readers frequently send their initial regressions to the center of the line, followed by subsequent saccades. Apparently, this happened primarily when spatial knowledge on saccade target location was lacking. Spatial memory and reading skill made distinct contributions to regression targeting. Memory skills strongly determined primary regressions, especially to near targets, whereas reading speed influenced the time needed to attain targets with subsequent saccades. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 600 KB

Open AccessArticle

Found in Translation: Humor and Style Attributes Unveiled by Horton

by Tanya Beelders and Luna Bergh

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040081 - 24 Jul 2026

Abstract

Background: The popularity of Dr. Seuss books across generations and languages is worthy of introspective analysis in order to establish how well the translation adheres to the original essence that is the underlying reason for its enduring nature. This article analyses Horton Hears [...] Read more.

Background: The popularity of Dr. Seuss books across generations and languages is worthy of introspective analysis in order to establish how well the translation adheres to the original essence that is the underlying reason for its enduring nature. This article analyses Horton Hears a Who! and its Afrikaans translation. Methods: A basic stylistic analysis of Dr. Seuss’ Horton Hears a Who! was conducted in order to determine whether its rhythmic nature and the meter used in the original text translate well into Afrikaans. Additionally, two extracts were used for an eye-tracking experiment whereby participants were asked to read both so that gaze behavior could be analyzed and compared between Afrikaans and English. Results: Eye-tracking results of both passages reveal that readers are comfortably within typical reading behavior and do not experience difficulty when reading the unique style of Dr. Seuss in either language. Stylistic meter does however change the position of elevated fixation durations, but made-up words and the underlying playful tone do not result in difficulty. However, text characteristics, such as length and number of syllables, and word positions, significantly affect gaze behavior. Conclusions: It is concluded that the very nature of Dr. Seuss books that makes the stories come alive for children over generations is successfully embodied in the Afrikaans translation with respect to the aspects tested and that both the serious, skillful writing and the more frivolous story-telling tone is present in the Afrikaans target text. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights from Eye-Tracking on Second Language Learning and Processing)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

23 pages, 1293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Do Two Eyes Identify Better than One? Interpretable Binocular Dynamics for Virtual Reality Gaze Biometrics

by Yiyu Zhang, Huijun Tang and Xiajing Yao

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040080 - 22 Jul 2026

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) headsets with built-in eye trackers can record binocular gaze, but prior biometric studies have largely emphasized monocular gaze or general spatial trajectories, leaving the identity value of interocular coordination largely untested. We test whether that geometry provides identity information beyond [...] Read more.

Virtual reality (VR) headsets with built-in eye trackers can record binocular gaze, but prior biometric studies have largely emphasized monocular gaze or general spatial trajectories, leaving the identity value of interocular coordination largely untested. We test whether that geometry provides identity information beyond monocular gaze dynamics. Using the GazeBaseVR dataset, we derive disparity, vergence-dynamic, and fixation disparity features and evaluate them in cross-session identification, task transfer, sequence modeling, replay detection, and return-visit analyses. Adding binocular features to monocular features improves cross-session Rank-1 identification, while binocular features alone provide complementary but limited discrimination. Performance is strongest when enrollment and probe tasks match and weakens sharply across tasks. Per-recording disparity centering leaves much of the binocular-only result intact, and a matched-input temporal convolutional network (TCN) performs better with binocular input than with duplicated monocular input. The TCN embedding overlaps with the disparity and vergence features, and simple feature-level fusion does not improve Rank-1 performance. Left-right gaze consistency can reject simple monocular replay attempts in this constrained setting, but score query adaptation reduces detection performance. In this setting, binocular dynamics are best treated as auxiliary evidence for VR gaze biometrics rather than as a standalone authenticator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Gaze and Classroom Conversation in Primary Education in Chile: A Comparison by Sex and Urban–Rural Context

by Marco Antonio Villalta-Paucar, Jéssica Verónica Rebolledo-Etchepare and Lautaro Barriga-Carvajal

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040079 - 17 Jul 2026

Abstract

This study analyzes the relationship between verbal interaction and eye behavior among 112 primary school students in urban and rural classrooms in Chile, using wireless eye-tracking technology. The results reveal statistically significant differences based on socioeducational context and sex. Linear regression analyses show [...] Read more.

This study analyzes the relationship between verbal interaction and eye behavior among 112 primary school students in urban and rural classrooms in Chile, using wireless eye-tracking technology. The results reveal statistically significant differences based on socioeducational context and sex. Linear regression analyses show that gaze is a significantly more robust predictor of class participation in rural contexts (R² adjusted = 0.671) than in urban contexts (R² adjusted = 0.342). Furthermore, eye behavior explained 71% of the variance in male students, compared to 37.7% in female students. While female students focused their attention primarily on teachers, male students relied on a shared visual distribution between the teacher and peers to regulate their participation in class. In conclusion, the gaze acts as a differentiated scaffolding whose importance intensifies in boys and rural environments. These findings suggest distinct maturational trajectories that require teachers to implement visually intentional instructional strategies to ensure communicative efficiency in the classroom. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

20 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antisaccade Performance in Adolescent Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Evidence from a Familial-Risk Design

by Oguz Bilal Karakus, Ayse Akca, Muhammed Said Demirkan, Zeynep Ahsen Ozcan, Didem Cek Ozturk, Ilayda Barankoglu Sevin, Sumeyra Karakus, Ibrahim Selcuk Esin and Onur Burak Dursun

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040078 - 15 Jul 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to compare antisaccade performance among adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), their unaffected siblings, and healthy controls, and to examine whether this performance may serve as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD. The study included 48 adolescents aged 12–18 years with [...] Read more.

This study aimed to compare antisaccade performance among adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), their unaffected siblings, and healthy controls, and to examine whether this performance may serve as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD. The study included 48 adolescents aged 12–18 years with OCD, 35 unaffected siblings, and 39 healthy controls. Participants completed an antisaccade task using an eye-tracking device. Antisaccade correct response rate and latency were evaluated as the primary outcomes, whereas saccadic velocity was examined as an exploratory measure of oculomotor execution. The OCD group showed lower antisaccade correct response rate and longer latency compared with healthy controls, whereas the sibling group demonstrated intermediate performance. Exploratory analyses identified statistically significant group differences in mean saccadic velocity; however, this finding should be interpreted cautiously. Regression analyses indicated that both OCD diagnosis and sibling status were independently associated with antisaccade correct response rate and latency, whereas findings for saccadic velocity should be considered exploratory. These findings suggest that impairments in antisaccade performance may not be specific to OCD but may also be present, albeit to a milder extent, in unaffected siblings, providing preliminary evidence supporting antisaccade performance as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD that warrants further investigation within an endophenotype framework. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 4080 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Sleep Monitoring Terminal Displays-Related Factors on User Visual Perception via Eye-Tracking and Tasks

by Jianghao Xiao, Jinyi Zhi, Shiyu Dong, Yao Zhou, Yao Xiao and Dengkai Chen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040077 - 14 Jul 2026

Abstract

The sleep monitoring terminal display (SMTD) designated for sleep cabins provides data visualizations of sleep profiles, yet poses challenges concerning visually informed interfaces. Given the scarcity of research on the SMTD interface, this study aims to evaluate the influence of SMTD-related factors, including [...] Read more.

The sleep monitoring terminal display (SMTD) designated for sleep cabins provides data visualizations of sleep profiles, yet poses challenges concerning visually informed interfaces. Given the scarcity of research on the SMTD interface, this study aims to evaluate the influence of SMTD-related factors, including stimulus areas of interest (AOIs), user experiences and tasks, on user visual perceptions while interacting with the SMTD system. Eye-tracking experimental contexts drawn from authentic settings are used to examine how the SMTD interfaces affect visual perceptions under varying tasks. Forty valid samples were collected, and pupil sizes (PSs), task performances, satisfaction, and usability were statistically compared and evaluated. The findings indicated that tasks had no significant effects, but user experiences and stimuli AOIs had significant main effects on PSs. In addition, task completion time ratio and tracking ratio between the two tasks varied; physical demand exceeded mental demand in task 1, whereas it was the opposite in task 2. The effectiveness of post-optimized interfaces was additionally substantiated through combining subjective ratings and objective metrics. The SMTD study provides novel insights for digital interface development and helps enhance users’ integrated visual perception. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 3764 KB

Open AccessArticle

gp3tools: An R Package for Reproducible Analysis and Reporting of Gazepoint GP3 Eye-Tracking Exports

by Stefanos Balaskas

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040076 - 14 Jul 2026

Abstract

Reproducible eye-movement research requires a documented path from device exports to structured, quality-checked, and reportable data objects. Gazepoint GP3 and Gazepoint Analysis provide accessible gaze, fixation, pupil, timing, media, and area-of-interest data, but their folder-based CSV exports are not automatically analysis-ready. Existing R [...] Read more.

Reproducible eye-movement research requires a documented path from device exports to structured, quality-checked, and reportable data objects. Gazepoint GP3 and Gazepoint Analysis provide accessible gaze, fixation, pupil, timing, media, and area-of-interest data, but their folder-based CSV exports are not automatically analysis-ready. Existing R tools support important stages of eye-tracking and pupillometry analysis, but they generally assume that data have already been organised into suitable structures; they do not provide a Gazepoint-aware workflow beginning with export-folder checks, all-gaze/fixation pairing, sampling and tracking-quality diagnostics, and preservation of preprocessing decisions through reporting. This article presents gp3tools, an open-source R package (R version 4.6.1) that converts Gazepoint GP3/Gazepoint Analysis exports into structured R objects, diagnostic summaries, preprocessing outputs, model-ready tables, interoperability objects, and reproducible reports. Rather than introducing a new statistical estimator, the package provides an export-aware workflow scaffold for import checking, quality control, pupil preprocessing, area-of-interest, fixation and transition summaries, model preparation, interoperability, and reporting. A synthetic Gazepoint-style demonstration dataset was used to evaluate workflow execution without exposing private participant data. The demonstration identified all expected file pairs and produced sample-level gaze/pupil tables, fixation tables, sampling-quality summaries, area-of-interest summaries, review flags, and reporting outputs. A small, private real-export compatibility check further showed that the workflow could process one empirical Gazepoint folder without manual restructuring. These results support a bounded software-evaluation claim: gp3tools executes the tested Gazepoint-style workflow and returns expected diagnostic and reporting objects, but the evidence does not establish hardware accuracy, preprocessing accuracy, computational scalability, general robustness across all Gazepoint exports, or substantive psychological or perceptual effects. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

18 pages, 1266 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Coupling Between Shannon Entropy and Dwell-Time Entropy Across Emotional and Safety-Critical Visual Tasks

by Yejin Lee and Kwangtae Jung

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040075 - 9 Jul 2026

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between fixation-frequency-based Shannon entropy and dwell-time-based entropy across two different visual task domains: emotional evaluation of automotive exterior designs and safety-critical monitoring of nuclear power plant emergency scenarios. Although gaze entropy has been widely used to explain emotional [...] Read more.

This study investigated the relationship between fixation-frequency-based Shannon entropy and dwell-time-based entropy across two different visual task domains: emotional evaluation of automotive exterior designs and safety-critical monitoring of nuclear power plant emergency scenarios. Although gaze entropy has been widely used to explain emotional responses, task performance, and situation awareness, the relationship between entropy measures derived from fixation counts and fixation durations remains insufficiently examined. Eye-tracking data were analyzed from two experiments with different attentional characteristics. In the emotional visual task, 10 participants evaluated three automotive design images. In the safety-critical task, 20 participants performed four nuclear power plant emergency monitoring scenarios. Shannon entropy and dwell-time entropy were calculated using fixation count and fixation duration distributions across Areas of Interest, respectively. Pearson correlation and simple regression analyses were conducted within each task domain. The results showed strong positive associations between Shannon entropy and dwell-time entropy in both domains. The emotional task showed a correlation of r = 0.844, while the safety-critical task showed a correlation of r = 0.890. These findings suggest that fixation-frequency-based and dwell-time-based entropy measures exhibit substantial overlap across different visual task contexts. However, the observed associations may partly reflect mathematical dependency between fixation frequency and cumulative dwell-time, and the findings should be interpreted as exploratory evidence rather than proof of metric interchangeability. The study highlights that gaze entropy metrics should be interpreted in relation to task-dependent attentional contexts. Higher entropy may be associated with exploratory visual attention in emotional evaluation, whereas lower entropy may be associated with focused monitoring in safety-critical tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking Techniques and Applications)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

27 pages, 4195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eye-Movement-Assisted Time–Frequency EEG Decoding for Multimodal Robotic Arm Control

by Xiangyang Sun, Wenjun Zhang, Jiahua Wu, Xingwei Xiong and Haixia Mei

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040074 - 7 Jul 2026

Abstract

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has shown potential for future rehabilitation-related and assistive control applications. Nevertheless, single-modality electroencephalography-based motor imagery (EEG-MI) signals are susceptible to interference, whereas existing algorithmic models suffer from limited classification accuracy and insufficient actionable control commands for interactive devices, thereby [...] Read more.

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has shown potential for future rehabilitation-related and assistive control applications. Nevertheless, single-modality electroencephalography-based motor imagery (EEG-MI) signals are susceptible to interference, whereas existing algorithmic models suffer from limited classification accuracy and insufficient actionable control commands for interactive devices, thereby impeding their practical deployment. To tackle these limitations, this study presents a multimodal human–computer interaction control scheme that integrates eye-movement command encoding with EEG motor imagery decoding. Self-collected EEG-MI and eye-movement datasets were established to support the proposed multimodal control framework. In this framework, eye movements are not used merely as auxiliary inputs, but are encoded as discrete commands for start, stop, grasp, and release, thereby reducing the command burden of EEG-MI decoding. The EEG-TransNet model is enhanced by integrating a time–frequency feature branch and replacing the original convolutional encoder with an adaptive multi-branch EEG feature gating module, strengthening the representation and fusion of multi-domain features. The model yields average classification accuracies of 86.96% and 88.73% on the BCI IV-2a dataset and the self-collected EEG dataset, respectively. Four independent SVM binary classifiers are adopted to identify four eye movement patterns. The EEG and eye movement classification results are binary-encoded to generate hardware-compatible control commands. Robotic-arm grasping experiments with healthy trained participants showed an average task completion time of 17 s, and the repeated grasping success-rate results further provide preliminary evidence for the real-time feasibility of the multimodal control framework under controlled laboratory conditions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Description

Journal of Eye Movement Research

Latest Articles

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

Latest Books

E-Mail Alert

News

Topics

Conferences

Special Issues

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI