Journal of Eye Movement Research

29 pages, 389 KB

Open AccessReview

Data-Driven Insights into E-Learning: A Comprehensive Review of Eye-Tracking Applications in Learning Systems

by Safia Bendjebar, Yacine Lafifi, Rochdi Boudjehem and Aissa Laouissi

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020041 - 17 Apr 2026

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In the last few years, universities have increasingly implemented online learning environments, allowing students to study at their own pace. These environments utilize technological tools and implement methods to support training, deliver content, and promote the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. As [...] Read more.

In the last few years, universities have increasingly implemented online learning environments, allowing students to study at their own pace. These environments utilize technological tools and implement methods to support training, deliver content, and promote the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. As an example of these technologies, eye tracking has emerged as a powerful tool for studying visual attention, cognitive processes, and learning behaviors. The main aim of this study is to provide a scoping review of recent eye-tracking research across diverse learner populations, ranging from K-12 students to university-level learners and educators. The present study examined recent advances in eye-tracking technologies, focusing on their potential, especially when combined with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques such as machine learning. It analyzed 54 empirical studies in the last few years, highlighting their applicability, strengths, and limitations. The research findings highlight the promise of eye-tracking technology to transform educational practices by providing data-driven insights regarding student behavior and cognitive processes. Future research must address implementation and data-analysis challenges to maximize the educational benefits of eye tracking. Full article

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17 pages, 442 KB

Open AccessReview

Application of Eye-Tracking Technology in Assessing Binocular Vision Function in Paediatric Populations: A Scoping Review

by Ong Huei Koon, Noor Ezailina Badarudin and Byoung-Sun Chu

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020040 - 17 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 547

Abstract

Background: This review discusses the application of eye-tracking technology in the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies among children. Methods: A scoping review using PRISMA guidelines was conducted through Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using the keywords “eye-tracking,” “binocular,” “vision,” “anomalies,” “paediatrics,” and [...] Read more.

Background: This review discusses the application of eye-tracking technology in the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies among children. Methods: A scoping review using PRISMA guidelines was conducted through Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using the keywords “eye-tracking,” “binocular,” “vision,” “anomalies,” “paediatrics,” and “children” from 2015 to 2025. Studies excluded were not written in English, did not apply the eye tracker as a research tool, involved an ineligible population, or involved non-human subjects. Results: The search strategy identified 77 citations, yet only 14 studies met the inclusion criteria. This review revealed a variety of binocular vision anomalies detectable through eye-tracking systems, along with the specific models and parameters employed in these assessments. Application of eye-tracking technology in diagnosing conditions such as strabismus and amblyopia demonstrated potential for improved accuracy and early detection. Discussion: Eye-tracking technology demonstrates considerable potential for the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies in children, particularly as a non-invasive method for early screening, thereby strengthening its clinical applicability. By assessing fixation stability, saccadic movements, and vergence responses, eye-tracking allows for the early detection of subtle visual anomalies, especially in the paediatric population. Conclusions: Eye-tracking technology represents a valuable advancement in paediatric vision care, enabling the more objective and earlier detection of binocular vision anomalies in the paediatric population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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17 pages, 2640 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Virtual Reality Orthoptic Interventions for Binocular Vision Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Clara Martinez-Perez, Noelia Nores-Palmas, Jacobo Garcia-Queiruga, Maria J. Giraldez and Eva Yebra-Pimentel

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020039 - 14 Apr 2026

Viewed by 562

Abstract

Purpose: To systematically review and meta-analyze randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating digital orthoptic interventions, including virtual reality (VR)–based approaches, for convergence insufficiency and intermittent exotropia. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and AMSTAR-2 standards and was prospectively registered in [...] Read more.

Purpose: To systematically review and meta-analyze randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating digital orthoptic interventions, including virtual reality (VR)–based approaches, for convergence insufficiency and intermittent exotropia. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and AMSTAR-2 standards and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched up to December 2025. Eligible studies were RCTs comparing VR-based or digital orthoptic interventions with conventional therapy, placebo VR, or control conditions. Primary outcomes included near point of convergence, ocular deviation, fusional reserves, and stereopsis. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 and certainty of evidence with GRADE. Results: Four RCTs (184 participants) were included. In convergence insufficiency, digital orthoptic interventions, including VR-based approaches, significantly reduced near heterophoria (mean difference [MD] −1.64 prism diopters; 95% CI −3.17 to −0.12), with no significant effects on near point of convergence or positive fusional reserves. In intermittent exotropia, VR-based interventions significantly improved near point of convergence (MD −1.60 cm; 95% CI −2.64 to −0.55), although this change did not reach the ≥4 cm threshold considered clinically meaningful according to the Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial. Improvements were also observed in stereopsis (MD −0.19 log units; 95% CI −0.33 to −0.04), while changes in near deviation were not significant. Evidence certainty ranged from low to moderate. Conclusions: VR-based and digital orthoptic interventions may offer modest, outcome-specific benefits as adjunctive treatments for selected binocular vision disorders. Larger, well-designed RCTs with standardized outcomes are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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33 pages, 5403 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eye-Tracked Visual Attention to Anthropomorphic Appearance and Empathic Responses in AI Medical Conversational Agents: Dissociating Trust Gains from Attentional Synergy

by Wumin Ouyang, Hemin Du, Yong Han, Zihuan Wang and Yuyu He

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020038 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 595

Abstract

Understanding how users perceive and attend to the anthropomorphic appearance and empathic responses of artificial intelligence medical conversational agents (AIMCAs) can help reveal the key judgment cues underlying trust formation and use decisions, while also informing interface and dialog design. To this end, [...] Read more.

Understanding how users perceive and attend to the anthropomorphic appearance and empathic responses of artificial intelligence medical conversational agents (AIMCAs) can help reveal the key judgment cues underlying trust formation and use decisions, while also informing interface and dialog design. To this end, this study employs a 3 (appearance anthropomorphism: high, medium, low) × 2 (empathic response: present, absent) within-subject eye-tracking experiment, combined with subjective scales and brief post-task open-ended feedback. During a static prototype viewing task based on hypothetical consultation scenarios, we concurrently recorded trust, behavioral intention, and visual measures for key areas of interest (AOIs; appearance area, conversational content area, and overall interface area). Eye-tracking measures were normalized by AOI coverage proportion to improve cross-AOI comparability. The results show that both anthropomorphic appearance and empathic response significantly increased users’ trust in AIMCAs and their behavioral intention. An interaction between these two types of social cues was also observed, suggesting that when visual embodiment and linguistic style are aligned at the social level, users are more likely to form favorable overall judgments. At the level of visual processing, however, no interaction effect was found, and the eye-tracking measures showed only partial main effects, indicating that subjective synergy does not necessarily correspond to synergistic changes in attentional allocation. Overall, anthropomorphic appearance and empathic response exerted consistent facilitating effects on outcome variables, but displayed different patterns of attentional allocation and information prioritization at the visual level. Accordingly, AIMCA design should emphasize consistency between appearance cues and conversational strategies, optimize users’ initial judgments and interface comprehension, and use intention through verifiable information organization and clear boundary cues. Full article

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13 pages, 757 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simplifying the Diagnosis of Vertical Diplopia: Is It Skew or Not?

by Anas Igbariye, Noa Hadar, Basel Obied, Adi Berco, Alon Zahavi, Inbal Man Peles and Nitza Goldenberg-Cohen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020037 - 8 Apr 2026

Viewed by 508

Abstract

Ocular tilt reaction (OTR) and trochlear nerve palsy (TNP) can induce cyclotorsion. We aimed to assess the utility of fundus photography in distinguishing between these disorders. The database of a neuro-ophthalmology hospital-based clinic was retrospectively searched for patients referred for new-onset vertical diplopia [...] Read more.

Ocular tilt reaction (OTR) and trochlear nerve palsy (TNP) can induce cyclotorsion. We aimed to assess the utility of fundus photography in distinguishing between these disorders. The database of a neuro-ophthalmology hospital-based clinic was retrospectively searched for patients referred for new-onset vertical diplopia between 2020 and 2023. Medical data were collected, and the angle between the optic disc and fovea was measured using ImageJ software to quantify torsion. Distinct torsional patterns were identified between the groups. OTR was characterized by variable, often conjugate torsion, whereas TNP demonstrated consistent disconjugate extorsion. Analysis of interocular torsional relationships, rather than magnitude alone, provided useful diagnostic discrimination. Fundus photography may be useful for differentiating OTR from TNP in complicated neurological cases, particularly in patients who are difficult to examine. This study emphasizes the practical clinical value of fundus photography as a simple, accessible, and objective tool for differentiating OTR from TNP, by contributing the torsional component of OTR triad, particularly in emergency or diagnostically challenging settings where standard examination may be limited. Full article

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21 pages, 2238 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Exploratory Study of the Relationship Between Phoria, Oculomotor Skills and Visual Symptoms in Children Aged 5 to 8 Years

by Carmen Bilbao, Julia Cavero, Jorge Ares, Alba Carrera and Diana Gargallo

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020036 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 502

Abstract

Purpose: To investigate the relationship between oculomotor skills, phorias, and visual symptoms in pediatric population aged 5 to 8 years. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 120 children, divided into three age groups. Each participant underwent a full optometric examination, including the [...] Read more.

Purpose: To investigate the relationship between oculomotor skills, phorias, and visual symptoms in pediatric population aged 5 to 8 years. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 120 children, divided into three age groups. Each participant underwent a full optometric examination, including the Maddox test for dissociated phoria, and the Northeastern State University College of Optometry (NSUCO) and Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) tests for oculomotor function. In addition, the Convergence Insufficiency Symptom Survey (CISS V-15) questionnaire was administered to assess visual symptoms. Results: The prevalence of binocular and oculomotor dysfunctions varied by age and sex. Differences in saccadic and pursuit eye movement performance were observed between groups. Older children showed patterns of association between phoria measurements, oculomotor performance, and possible visual symptoms, particularly in girls over 6 years of age. Conclusions: This study provides additional descriptive data for the pediatric population and highlights that oculomotor dysfunction and phoria frequently coexist. Symptom scores measured by the CISS V-15 tended to increase with age. The results should be considered preliminary and potentially hypothesis-generating, pending the future availability of a validated questionnaire to assess phoria-related symptoms in children from 5 years of age. Overall, this study underscores the importance of comprehensive binocular vision assessments in school-aged children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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20 pages, 548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aging Reduces the Efficiency of Parafoveal Lexical Activation During Chinese Sentence Reading

by Yiu-Kei Tsang, Ming Yan and Jinger Pan

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020035 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 436

Abstract

This study utilized the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm to examine age-related changes in parafoveal processing during Chinese sentence reading. A community sample of 65 older readers and 68 younger readers from Hong Kong read 130 sentences while their eye movements were recorded. In each [...] Read more.

This study utilized the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm to examine age-related changes in parafoveal processing during Chinese sentence reading. A community sample of 65 older readers and 68 younger readers from Hong Kong read 130 sentences while their eye movements were recorded. In each sentence, an invisible boundary was placed just before a critical target word. Before the readers’ eye gaze crossed the boundary, a parafoveal preview was presented in the position of the target word. The preview could be identical, orthographically related, phonologically related, semantically related, or unrelated to the first character of the target word. Once the eye gaze passed the boundary, the preview characters changed to the target. For the younger readers, the related parafoveal previews facilitated the subsequent foveal processing of the target compared to the unrelated previews across early and late eye movement measures. In contrast, the older readers demonstrated a reduced identical preview benefit in early eye movement measures. They also showed benefits in other preview conditions only in later measures. These results suggest that older Chinese readers can extract linguistic information from parafoveal vision despite reduced visual acuity. However, the efficiency of parafoveal processing is reduced, potentially due to slower processing speed and less efficient spreading activation within the lexical network. Full article

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25 pages, 1772 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Emotion Perception and Gaze Sharing on Collaborative Experience and Performance in Multiplayer Games

by Lu Yin, He Zhang and Renke He

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020034 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 591

Abstract

Compared to traditional offline collaboration, current online collaboration often lacks nonverbal social cues, resulting in lower efficiency and a reduced emotional connection between teammates. To address this issue, this study used a two-player collaborative puzzle game as the experimental setting to explore the [...] Read more.

Compared to traditional offline collaboration, current online collaboration often lacks nonverbal social cues, resulting in lower efficiency and a reduced emotional connection between teammates. To address this issue, this study used a two-player collaborative puzzle game as the experimental setting to explore the impact of two nonverbal social cues, emotion and gaze, on collaborative experience and performance. Specifically, this study designed four collaborative modes: with and without teammates’ facial expressions, and with and without teammates’ gaze points. Sixty-two participants took part in the experiment, and each pair was required to complete these four patterns. Subsequently, we analyzed their collaborative experience through subjective questionnaires, objective facial expressions, and gaze overlap rates. The experimental results revealed that teammates’ gaze could effectively enhance collaborative efficiency, while facial expression is key to optimizing subjective experience. Combining both cues further acquires advantages in cognitive and emotional dimensions, leading to improved performance outcomes. The study also indicated that facial expressions could alleviate the social pressure triggered by shared gaze from teammates. Additionally, the study also examined how personality differences influenced collaborative experiences and performance. The results indicated that individuals with high agreeableness actively seek social cues, leading to more positive collaborative experiences. This study provides empirical evidence for understanding the interactive mechanisms of cognitive and emotional processes during online collaboration, and points the way toward designing adaptive, personalized intelligent collaborative systems. Full article

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15 pages, 1686 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Data-Driven Approach for Comparing Gaze Allocation Across Conditions

by Jack Prosser, Anna Metzger and Matteo Toscani

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020033 - 18 Mar 2026

Viewed by 563

Abstract

Gaze analysis often relies on hypothesised, subjectively defined regions of interest (ROIs) or heatmaps: ROIs enable condition comparisons but reduce objectivity and exploration; while heatmaps avoid this, they require many pixel-wise comparisons, making differences hard to detect. Here, we propose an advanced data-driven [...] Read more.

Gaze analysis often relies on hypothesised, subjectively defined regions of interest (ROIs) or heatmaps: ROIs enable condition comparisons but reduce objectivity and exploration; while heatmaps avoid this, they require many pixel-wise comparisons, making differences hard to detect. Here, we propose an advanced data-driven approach for analysing gaze behaviour. We use DNNs (adapted versions of AlexNet) to classify conditions from gaze patterns, paired with reverse correlation to show where and how gaze differs between conditions. We test our approach on data from an experiment investigating the effects of object-specific sounds (e.g., church bell ringing) on gaze allocation. ROI-based analysis shows a significant difference between conditions (congruent sound, no sound, phase-scrambled sound and pink noise), with more gaze allocation on sound-associated objects in the congruent sound condition. However, as expected, significance depends on the definition of the ROIs. Heatmaps show some unclear qualitative differences, but none are significant after correcting for pixelwise comparisons. We showed that, for some scenes, the DNNs could classify the task based on individual fixations with accuracy significantly higher than chance. Our approach shows that sound can alter gaze allocation, revealing task-specific, non-trivial strategies: fixations are not always drawn to the sound source but shift away from salient features, sometimes falling between salient features and the sound source. Crucially, such fixation strategies could not be revealed using a traditional hypothesis-driven approach. Overall, the method is objective, data-driven, and enables clear comparisons of conditions. Full article

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14 pages, 370 KB

Open AccessArticle

Visual Attention in Real Classrooms: A Study with Eye-Tracking in Urban and Rural Schools of Chile

by Marco Villalta-Paucar and Jéssica Verónica Rebolledo-Etchepare

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020032 - 18 Mar 2026

Viewed by 634

Abstract

Student gaze behavior has been scarcely studied in real Latin American primary school classrooms. The objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between primary students’ eye behavior and cognitive development in urban and rural contexts. A quantitative method was employed, including [...] Read more.

Student gaze behavior has been scarcely studied in real Latin American primary school classrooms. The objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between primary students’ eye behavior and cognitive development in urban and rural contexts. A quantitative method was employed, including 126 primary school students aged 6 to 8 years old, from urban and rural schools in Chile. Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices (CPM) measured cognitive development, and students’ eye behavior was recorded during a real class using eye-tracking glasses. Eye behavior was analyzed in six areas of interest: (1) Own material (2) teacher, (3) teacher’s material, (4) peer, (5) peer’s material, and (6) non-interactional gaze. The results indicate that the CPM scale demonstrates adequate reliability (α = 0.89). In addition, no significant differences, nor relationship between eye behavior and cognitive development, were found by sex; however, significant differences were found by environment (urban versus rural). The regression analysis is significant (F(7, 102) = 6.173, p < 0.001) and suggests that gazing at the teacher’s material and one’s own material are negative predictors of non-interactional gaze or students’ disconnection from the class. In conclusion, distraction in the classroom is influenced by learning-related contextual variables rather than sex or cognitive development. Full article

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26 pages, 1234 KB

Open AccessReview

Towards Rigorous Eye-Tracking Methodology in Interdisciplinary Fields: Insights from and Recommendations for Tourism Research

by Wilson Cheong Hin Hong

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020031 - 12 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 779

Abstract

Eye-tracking methodology represents a young but rapidly growing approach in tourism research, offering a direct window into the cognitive processes driving tourism stakeholders’ behaviour. However, a critical gap remains between the rapid adoption of this tool and the methodological rigour required to interpret [...] Read more.

Eye-tracking methodology represents a young but rapidly growing approach in tourism research, offering a direct window into the cognitive processes driving tourism stakeholders’ behaviour. However, a critical gap remains between the rapid adoption of this tool and the methodological rigour required to interpret its neurophysiological data. This critical review synthesizes 23 empirical studies (2020–2025) from the destination marketing and branding domain to diagnose eye-tracking’s state-of-the-art application. Adopting the SALSA framework (Search, Appraisal, Synthesis, Analysis) augmented by PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this study systematically searched Web of Science and Scopus databases. Studies were appraised using an eight-dimensional quality rubric, assessing from theoretical grounding to experimental design to statistical rigour. Findings revealed a “tool-first” exploratory phenomenon, where the majority of studies relied on basic fixation metrics to infer complex psychological states such as “interest”, when they could imply other cognitive states. Furthermore, most reviewed studies failed to control for stimulus-level confounds (e.g., luminance, AOI size) and utilized inappropriate data-handling procedures and methods, such as the absence of data cleaning and treating count and binary data as continuous data. These, coupled with transparency deficits, undermined the validity of their conclusions. Hence, a Checklist for Eye-Tracking Rigour (CETR) and a methodological decision tree were developed to guide researchers towards confirmatory and neurobiologically grounded research. Findings also provided a framework for managers/practitioners to more accurately interpret eye-tracking studies. Full article

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21 pages, 2987 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seeing Through Packaging: Eye-Tracking Evidence on How Product Visual Strategy and Unit Size Shape Visual Attention and Consumer Evaluation

by Zhiyi Guo, Zihao Cao, Yongchun Mao, Muhizam Mustafa, Yuqi Luo and Yueyue Ning

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020030 - 10 Mar 2026

Viewed by 996

Abstract

Product visual strategies (PVS) on food packaging influence how consumers visually inspect products at the point of purchase. However, evidence comparing transparent windows and product images remains mixed, particularly regarding how these strategies interact with food unit size (FUS) and shape visual attention [...] Read more.

Product visual strategies (PVS) on food packaging influence how consumers visually inspect products at the point of purchase. However, evidence comparing transparent windows and product images remains mixed, particularly regarding how these strategies interact with food unit size (FUS) and shape visual attention patterns. Moreover, few studies have examined these effects using objective eye-tracking measures within controlled experimental designs. This study employed a 2 × 2 between-subjects quasi-experiment to investigate the effects of PVS (transparent window and product image) and FUS (large unit and small unit) on visual attention and subsequent product-related evaluations. A total of 160 participants viewed realistic chocolate package stimuli that varied only in visual strategy and unit size. Eye movements were recorded using Tobii Pro Glasses 2. Visual attention was assessed through Time to First Fixation (TFF) and Fixation Duration (FD), while expected tastiness, expected quality, and purchase intention were measured using standardized self-report scales. The results showed that transparent-window packaging attracted visual attention more rapidly and sustained longer fixations than product-image packaging. These attention differences were accompanied by higher expected tastiness, expected quality, and purchase intention. While food unit size alone showed limited effects on eye-movement measures, a significant interaction was observed: small-unit designs elicited greater visual attention and more favorable evaluations only when the product was directly visible through a transparent window. Overall, the findings demonstrate how product visual strategies and food unit size jointly shape visual attention allocation during packaging inspection. By integrating eye-tracking measures with evaluation and behavioral intention outcomes, this study contributes to applied eye-movement research in food packaging contexts. Full article

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17 pages, 1869 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Analysis of Microsaccades and Pupil Size Variations in Age-Related Cognitive Impairment Using Eye-Tracking Technology

by Seokjun Oh, Tahsin Nairuz, Sung-Jun Park and Jong-Ha Lee

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020029 - 5 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 872

Abstract

Age-related cognitive impairment represents a critical stage in the continuum of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), highlighting the need for objective and non-invasive physiological indicators of early neurological change. This study investigates the simultaneous analysis of microsaccadic eye movements and pupil size [...] Read more.

Age-related cognitive impairment represents a critical stage in the continuum of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), highlighting the need for objective and non-invasive physiological indicators of early neurological change. This study investigates the simultaneous analysis of microsaccadic eye movements and pupil size variations as ocular biomarkers associated with age-related cognitive impairment using eye-tracking technology. A total of 70 participants were recruited and categorized into three age groups: individuals in their 20s, 60s, and 70s. Participants in their 70s were further categorized based on MMSE-K scores into cognitively normal (≥24) and impaired (≤23) subgroups. Quantitative analyses showed a significant age-related increase in microsaccade frequency along both axes, with significantly higher microsaccade frequencies (p < 0.01) among individuals with lower cognitive scores within the same age group. Pupil size variation, including constriction and dilation rates, declined with age, while response speed remained relatively unchanged across all age groups. These findings highlight a clear association between age related-cognitive decline and involuntary ocular responses. The proposed dual-biomarker method offers a non-invasive and quantitative framework that may complement traditional cognitive screening tools. Future studies involving larger cohorts and clinically diagnosed AD populations are required to determine the diagnostic utility of these ocular biomarkers. Full article

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18 pages, 822 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing Eye-Tracking Metrics with the Driver Activity Load Index

by Julia Bend, Markus Gödker, Elise Sophie Banach and Thomas Franke

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020028 - 5 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1127

Abstract

This study investigated how perceptual workload in driving situations is captured by subjective ratings versus eye-tracking metrics. Fifty participants completed low- and high-complexity conditions while fixation behavior, blinks, and pupil diameter were recorded, and workload was assessed using the DALI scale. High-load scenes [...] Read more.

This study investigated how perceptual workload in driving situations is captured by subjective ratings versus eye-tracking metrics. Fifty participants completed low- and high-complexity conditions while fixation behavior, blinks, and pupil diameter were recorded, and workload was assessed using the DALI scale. High-load scenes elicited longer fixations, fewer fixations per minute, reduced blinking, and increased pupil dilation, indicating elevated attentional demand. DALI scores increased with scene complexity and were negatively associated with fixation duration, demonstrating that participants’ subjective ratings were driven primarily by perceptual strain rather than cognitive effort. Eye-tracking patterns supported this interpretation: fixation-based indicators tent to reflect the cognitive component of demand, whereas DALI selectively tracked perceptual overload. Together, these results show that DALI is highly sensitive to visual density, and that eye-movement measures provide converging evidence for its specificity as a perceptual load instrument. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Horizons and Recent Advances in Eye-Tracking Technology)

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25 pages, 2534 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calendar Horizon as a Boundary Affordance: An Attempt-Centric Eye-Tracking Analysis of Calendar Scheduling Interfaces

by Nina Xie, Yuanyuan Wang and Yujun Liu

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020027 - 2 Mar 2026

Viewed by 715

Abstract

Digital calendars are interactive representations of time that shape both scheduling outcomes and the micro-process of searching, verifying, and revising candidate placements. We examine calendar horizon—whether weekend time is visible in the default week view—as a boundary affordance in scheduling interfaces. Using eye [...] Read more.

Digital calendars are interactive representations of time that shape both scheduling outcomes and the micro-process of searching, verifying, and revising candidate placements. We examine calendar horizon—whether weekend time is visible in the default week view—as a boundary affordance in scheduling interfaces. Using eye tracking and interaction logs, we model each scheduling episode as a sequence of placement attempts and align gaze to each attempt, partitioning it into Early/Mid/Late phases and summarizing attention across structural AOIs (task panel, calendar grid, and the weekend column when present). Two experiments used drag-and-drop and dropdown slot-picking; weekend visibility was manipulated within the dropdown interface, while evening slots remained available. Across 105 participants (1018 task episodes), AttemptsCount ranged from 1 to 7. AttemptsCount predicted gaze-based process cost: each additional attempt corresponded to ~56% more total fixation duration. Personal tasks required more attempts than work tasks and elicited stronger Late-phase weekend verification when the weekend was visible. Horizon cues also shifted boundary outcomes: hiding the weekend reduced weekend placements and increased reliance on evening scheduling, indicating displacement into adjacent time regions. These findings position calendar horizon as a design lever that shapes both process (verification) and outcomes (boundary placements), with implications for calendar UIs and mixed-initiative scheduling tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)

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20 pages, 2259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Multi-Task Eye Tracking and Interpretable Machine Learning for High-Accuracy Screening of Amblyopia in Pediatric Populations

by Xiumei Song, Yunhan Zhang, Hongyu Chen, Chenyu Tang, Bohan Yao, Hubin Zhao, Luigi G. Occhipinti, Arokia Nathan, Changbin Zhai and Shuo Gao

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020026 - 2 Mar 2026

Viewed by 629

Abstract

Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of spatial vision in which abnormal visual experience leads to persistent reductions in acuity and contrast sensitivity, even after optimal optical correction. We introduce a brief, child-friendly battery of task-evoked eye tracking that probes fixation stability, fine pattern [...] Read more.

Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of spatial vision in which abnormal visual experience leads to persistent reductions in acuity and contrast sensitivity, even after optimal optical correction. We introduce a brief, child-friendly battery of task-evoked eye tracking that probes fixation stability, fine pattern processing, and smooth pursuit control across three simple paradigms. Oculomotor traces are transformed into physiologically interpretable markers—fixation dispersion and saccadic strategy, orientation-dependent drift and stability, pursuit gain, and tracking error—and used to train a compact classifier with subject-wise validation and probability calibration. In a cohort of school-aged participants with clinically diagnosed unilateral amblyopia and age-matched visually normal controls tested under best-corrected viewing conditions, the approach consistently separated groups with stable performance across folds; feature-importance analyses indicated that pursuit- and orientation-dependent markers contributed most. The protocol runs in minutes, is objective and noninvasive, and is well tolerated in pediatric settings. By quantifying functional consequences of amblyopic vision that complement conventional acuity testing, this work positions task-evoked eye movements as practical biomarkers for screening and monitoring, and lays the groundwork for prospective validation and age-stratified norms in community and school-based vision care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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23 pages, 3477 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Eye Movements and Correlation to Cognitive Functions in Relation to the Location of Guide Signs and Driving Speed

by Takaya Maeyama, Hiroki Okada and Daisuke Sawamura

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020025 - 2 Mar 2026

Viewed by 739

Abstract

Driving safety critically depends on the ability of drivers to efficiently recognize and process guide sign information under varying traffic conditions. This study examined how driving speed (slow/fast) and guide sign location (front/left) influence eye-movement behavior during guide sign recognition, and how these [...] Read more.

Driving safety critically depends on the ability of drivers to efficiently recognize and process guide sign information under varying traffic conditions. This study examined how driving speed (slow/fast) and guide sign location (front/left) influence eye-movement behavior during guide sign recognition, and how these effects relate to drivers’ cognitive functions and basic demographics. Twenty-four licensed drivers performed a guide sign recognition task using onboard video stimuli, and eye movements based on fixations and saccades were recorded. Generalized linear mixed models with participants as random effects were used to analyze the interactions between driving conditions, cognitive functions, demographics, and eye movement measures. Under low-load conditions, such as slow driving and front-positioned signs, individual differences in cognitive functions, including verbal memory and useful field of view, were strongly reflected in eye-movement behavior. Under high-load conditions characterized by fast driving and left-positioned signs, the influence of cognitive function was reduced, and eye movements were more strongly associated with driving experience. Increasing driving speed was associated with fewer eye movements, whereas the saccade amplitude remained unchanged, indicating the suppression of exploratory eye movements. For left-positioned signs, the fixation duration on the target was maintained, whereas gaze shifts between the forward environment and the sign were reduced. Full article

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16 pages, 2845 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Feasibility Study of Tablet-Based Eye Movement Assessment Using a Built-In Camera: A Pilot Study

by Kyunghyun Park, Unseok Lee, Sejoon Moon, Hyungsik Bae and Hyungoo Kang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020024 - 24 Feb 2026

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Abstract

This study developed a tablet PC–based eye movement assessment application and conducted a pilot investigation to explore whether tablet-based ocular motor metrics demonstrate functional sensitivity to variations in conventional visual function parameters. Twenty-three healthy adults (10 males, 13 females; mean age: 24.41 ± [...] Read more.

This study developed a tablet PC–based eye movement assessment application and conducted a pilot investigation to explore whether tablet-based ocular motor metrics demonstrate functional sensitivity to variations in conventional visual function parameters. Twenty-three healthy adults (10 males, 13 females; mean age: 24.41 ± 1.91 years) without a history of ocular disease performed smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movement tests at three difficulty levels. For exploratory analysis, participants were stratified into above- and below-mean groups based on conventional visual function test results. For smooth pursuit movements, mean pursuit traversal time demonstrated statistically significant differences between the low–medium (1.11 s) and low–high (1.14 s) difficulty levels (p < 0.05), with corresponding differences in derived velocity. Saccadic movements showed significant mean accuracy differences between low-high (1.02 points) and medium-high (0.95 points) difficulty levels (p < 0.05). Participants with higher-than-average horizontal phoria values (distance and near) and the blur/break points of near convergence amplitude exhibited significantly longer smooth pursuit traversal times (corresponding to slower derived velocities) (p < 0.05). The high-value group for blur point of near convergence amplitude demonstrated significantly superior saccadic accuracy (1.63 points) compared with the low-value group (1.30 points) (p < 0.05). Exploratory associations between visual function parameters and ocular motor performance were observed within the healthy participant group, suggesting exploratory associations between tablet-based smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movement performance and conventional visual function measures. These findings suggest that tablet PC–based eye movement assessment may serve as a feasible, low-cost approach for exploratory screening and functional monitoring, rather than a validated diagnostic tool. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 19, Issue 2 (April 2026) – 18 articles

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