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Advances in Photodynamic Therapy

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2015) | Viewed by 252932

Special Issue Editors

Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
Interests: photodynamic therapy (PDT); low-level light therapy (LLLT); wound healing and infectious disease; atherosclerotic vulnerable plaque; anti-tumor immunity; photochemical mechanisms
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
1. Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
2. BAR 407, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, 40 Blossom Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
Interests: photodynamic therapy; antimicrobial photoinactivation; photochemical mechanisms

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue “Advances in Photodynamic Therapy” will cover a selection of recent research topics and current review articles in the field of Photodynamic Therapy and Photodynamic Inactivation. Experimental papers, up-to-date review articles, and commentaries are all welcome.

The principle of photodynamic action was discovered over 110 years ago and its use as photodynamic therapy (PDT) for cancer, infections, and a range of other diseases has been studied for over 40 years. Nevertheless, it is fair to say that PDT has only been adopted as a mainstream treatment in a few specialties, such as dermatology and ophthalmology. The mechanism of action relies on absorption of harmless visible light by a non-toxic compound, called a photosensitizer that will go on to produce reactive oxygen species, such as singlet oxygen, which destroy cancer cells, blood vessels, and pathogenic microorganisms. Research advances include the design and testing of new photosensitizers, the targeting of photosensitizers by molecular recognition, the combination of nanotechnology and nanoparticles, the understanding of cell signaling pathways, antimicrobial photoinactivation, the influence of PDT on the host immune system, new light delivery methods and dosimetry techniques, new animal models, and well-controlled clinical trials for various diseases.

Prof. Dr. Michael R. Hamblin
Dr. Ying-ying Huang
Guest Editors

Keywords

  • Photodynamic therapy
  • photosensitizers
  • antimicrobial photoinactivation
  • drug delivery
  • nanotechnology
  • cancer
  • infections
  • dermatology
  • ophthalmology
  • anti-tumor immunity
  • clinical trials

Published Papers (34 papers)

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2146 KiB  
Article
MAL Daylight Photodynamic Therapy for Actinic Keratosis: Clinical and Imaging Evaluation by 3D Camera
by Carmen Cantisani, Giovanni Paolino, Giovanni Pellacani, Dario Didona, Marco Scarno, Valentina Faina, Tommaso Gobello and Stefano Calvieri
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(7), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17071108 - 11 Jul 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5719
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancer is the most common skin cancer with an incidence that varies widely worldwide. Among them, actinic keratosis (AK), considered by some authors as in situ squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), are the most common and reflect an abnormal multistep skin cell [...] Read more.
Non-melanoma skin cancer is the most common skin cancer with an incidence that varies widely worldwide. Among them, actinic keratosis (AK), considered by some authors as in situ squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), are the most common and reflect an abnormal multistep skin cell development due to the chronic ultraviolet (UV) light exposure. No ideal treatment exists, but the potential risk of their development in a more invasive form requires prompt treatment. As patients usually present with multiple AK on fields of actinic damage, there is a need for effective, safe, simple and short treatments which allow the treatment of large areas. To achieve this, daylight photodynamic therapy (DL-PDT) is an innovative treatment for multiple mild actinic keratosis, well tolerated by patients. Patients allocated to the PDT unit, affected by multiple mild−moderate and severe actinic keratosis on sun-exposed areas treated with DL-PDT, were clinically evaluated at baseline and every three months with an Antera 3D, Miravex© camera. Clinical and 3D images were performed at each clinical check almost every three months. In this retrospective study, 331 patients (56.7% male, 43.3% female) were treated with DL-PDT. We observed a full clearance in more than two-thirds of patients with one or two treatments. Different responses depend on the number of lesions and on their severity; for patients with 1–3 lesions and with grade I or II AK, a full clearance was reached in 85% of cases with a maximum of two treatments. DL-PDT in general improved skin tone and erased sun damage. Evaluating each Antera 3D images, hemoglobin concentration and pigmentation, a skin color and tone improvement in 310 patients was observed. DL-PDT appears as a promising, effective, simple, tolerable and practical treatment for actinic damage associated with AK, and even treatment of large areas can be with little or no pain. The 3D imaging allowed for quantifying in real time the aesthetic benefits of DL-PDT’s increasing compliance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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4269 KiB  
Article
Alternatives to Outdoor Daylight Illumination for Photodynamic Therapy—Use of Greenhouses and Artificial Light Sources
by Catharina M. Lerche, Ida M. Heerfordt, Jakob Heydenreich and Hans Christian Wulf
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(3), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17030309 - 29 Feb 2016
Cited by 69 | Viewed by 8401
Abstract
Daylight-mediated photodynamic therapy (daylight PDT) is a simple and pain free treatment of actinic keratoses. Weather conditions may not always allow daylight PDT outdoors. We compared the spectrum of five different lamp candidates for indoor “daylight PDT” and investigated their ability to photobleach [...] Read more.
Daylight-mediated photodynamic therapy (daylight PDT) is a simple and pain free treatment of actinic keratoses. Weather conditions may not always allow daylight PDT outdoors. We compared the spectrum of five different lamp candidates for indoor “daylight PDT” and investigated their ability to photobleach protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). Furthermore, we measured the amount of PpIX activating daylight available in a glass greenhouse, which can be an alternative when it is uncomfortable for patients to be outdoors. The lamps investigated were: halogen lamps (overhead and slide projector), white light-emitting diode (LED) lamp, red LED panel and lamps used for conventional PDT. Four of the five light sources were able to photobleach PpIX completely. For halogen light and the red LED lamp, 5000 lux could photobleach PpIX whereas 12,000 lux were needed for the white LED lamp. Furthermore, the greenhouse was suitable for daylight PDT since the effect of solar light is lowered only by 25%. In conclusion, we found four of the five light sources and the greenhouse usable for indoor daylight PDT. The greenhouse is beneficial when the weather outside is rainy or windy. Only insignificant ultraviolet B radiation (UVB) radiation passes through the greenhouse glass, so sun protection is not needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1768 KiB  
Article
A Classic Near-Infrared Probe Indocyanine Green for Detecting Singlet Oxygen
by Cheng-Yi Tang, Feng-Yao Wu, Min-Kai Yang, Yu-Min Guo, Gui-Hua Lu and Yong-Hua Yang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17020219 - 06 Feb 2016
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 8103
Abstract
The revelation of mechanisms of photodynamic therapy (PDT) at the cellular level as well as singlet oxygen (1O2) as a second messengers requires the quantification of intracellular 1O2. To detect singlet oxygen, directly measuring the phosphorescence [...] Read more.
The revelation of mechanisms of photodynamic therapy (PDT) at the cellular level as well as singlet oxygen (1O2) as a second messengers requires the quantification of intracellular 1O2. To detect singlet oxygen, directly measuring the phosphorescence emitted from 1O2 at 1270 nm is simple but limited for the low quantum yield and intrinsic efficiency of 1O2 emission. Another method is chemically trapping 1O2 and measuring fluorescence, absorption and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR). In this paper, we used indocyanine green (ICG), the only near-infrared (NIR) probe approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to detect 1O2 in vitro. Once it reacts with 1O2, ICG is decomposed and its UV absorption at 780 nm decreases with the laser irradiation. Our data demonstrated that ICG could be more sensitive and accurate than Singlet Oxygen Sensor Green reagent® (SOSG, a commercialized fluorescence probe) in vitro, moreover, ICG functioned with Eosin Y while SOSG failed. Thus, ICG would reasonably provide the possibility to sense 1O2 in vitro, with high sensitivity, selectivity and suitability to most photosensitizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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3064 KiB  
Article
Fluence Rate Differences in Photodynamic Therapy Efficacy and Activation of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor after Treatment of the Tumor-Involved Murine Thoracic Cavity
by Craig E. Grossman, Shirron L. Carter, Julie Czupryna, Le Wang, Mary E. Putt and Theresa M. Busch
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17010101 - 14 Jan 2016
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5268
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) of the thoracic cavity can be performed in conjunction with surgery to treat cancers of the lung and its pleura. However, illumination of the cavity results in tissue exposure to a broad range of fluence rates. In a murine model [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) of the thoracic cavity can be performed in conjunction with surgery to treat cancers of the lung and its pleura. However, illumination of the cavity results in tissue exposure to a broad range of fluence rates. In a murine model of intrathoracic PDT, we studied the efficacy of 2-(1-hexyloxyethyl)-2-devinyl pyropheophorbide-a (HPPH; Photochlor®)-mediated PDT in reducing the burden of non-small cell lung cancer for treatments performed at different incident fluence rates (75 versus 150 mW/cm). To better understand a role for growth factor signaling in disease progression after intrathoracic PDT, the expression and activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was evaluated in areas of post-treatment proliferation. The low fluence rate of 75 mW/cm produced the largest reductions in tumor burden. Bioluminescent imaging and histological staining for cell proliferation (anti-Ki-67) identified areas of disease progression at both fluence rates after PDT. However, increased EGFR activation in proliferative areas was detected only after treatment at the higher fluence rate of 150 mW/cm. These data suggest that fluence rate may affect the activation of survival factors, such as EGFR, and weaker activation at lower fluence rate could contribute to a smaller tumor burden after PDT at 75 mW/cm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Redox-Responsive Porphyrin-Based Polysilsesquioxane Nanoparticles for Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer Cells
by Daniel L. Vega, Patrick Lodge and Juan L. Vivero-Escoto
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17010056 - 31 Dec 2015
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7693
Abstract
The development of stimulus-responsive photosensitizer delivery systems that carry a high payload of photosensitizers is of great importance in photodynamic therapy. In this study, redox-responsive polysilsesquioxane nanoparticles (PSilQNPs) built by a reverse microemulsion approach using 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(carboxyphenyl) porphyrin (TCPP) silane derivatives as building blocks, [...] Read more.
The development of stimulus-responsive photosensitizer delivery systems that carry a high payload of photosensitizers is of great importance in photodynamic therapy. In this study, redox-responsive polysilsesquioxane nanoparticles (PSilQNPs) built by a reverse microemulsion approach using 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(carboxyphenyl) porphyrin (TCPP) silane derivatives as building blocks, were successfully fabricated. The structural properties of TCPP-PSilQNPs were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS)/ζ-potential, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The photophysical properties were determined by UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopy. The quantity of singlet oxygen generated in solution was measured using 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran. The redox-responsive release of TCPP molecules was successfully demonstrated in solution in the presence of a reducing agent. The internalization of TCPP-PSilQNPs in cancer cells was investigated using laser scanning confocal microscopy. Phototoxicity experiments in vitro showed that the redox-responsive TCPP-PSilQNPs exhibited an improved phototherapeutic effect on cervical cancer cells compared to a non-responsive TCPP-PSilQNP control material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1031 KiB  
Article
Intravenous Single-Dose Toxicity of Redaporfin-Based Photodynamic Therapy in Rodents
by Luis B. Rocha, Fábio Schaberle, Janusz M. Dąbrowski, Sérgio Simões and Luis G. Arnaut
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(12), 29236-29249; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161226162 - 08 Dec 2015
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 9475
Abstract
We assessed the tolerability and safety in rodents of a single intravenous (i.v.) dose of redaporfin, a novel photosensitizer for Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) of cancer. Two approaches were used to evaluate acute toxicity: (i) a dose escalation study in BALB/c mice to evaluate [...] Read more.
We assessed the tolerability and safety in rodents of a single intravenous (i.v.) dose of redaporfin, a novel photosensitizer for Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) of cancer. Two approaches were used to evaluate acute toxicity: (i) a dose escalation study in BALB/c mice to evaluate the maximum tolerated dose of redaporfin; and (ii) a safety toxicology study in Wistar rats, of a single dose of redaporfin, with or without illumination, to evaluate possible signs of systemic toxicity. Redaporfin formulation was well tolerated by mice, with no signs of adverse reactions up to 75 mg/kg. In rats, there were no relevant changes, except for a significant, but transient, increase in the blood serum markers for hepatic function and muscle integrity, and also on neutrophil counts, observed after the application of light. The overall results showed that redaporfin-PDT is very well tolerated. No abnormalities were observed, including reactions at the injection site or skin phototoxicity, although the animals were maintained in normal indoor lighting. Redaporfin also showed a high efficacy in the treatment of male BALB/c mice with subcutaneously implanted colon (CT26) tumours. Vascular-PDT with 1.5 mg/kg redaporfin and a light dose of 74 J/cm2 led to the complete tumour regression in 83% of the mice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1744 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study on Two Cationic Porphycenes: Photophysical and Antimicrobial Photoinactivation Evaluation
by Rubén Ruiz-González, Montserrat Agut, Elena Reddi and Santi Nonell
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(11), 27072-27086; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161125999 - 12 Nov 2015
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5156
Abstract
Over the last decades, the number of pathogenic multi-resistant microorganisms has grown dramatically, which has stimulated the search for novel strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is one of the promising alternatives to conventional treatments based on antibiotics. Here, we [...] Read more.
Over the last decades, the number of pathogenic multi-resistant microorganisms has grown dramatically, which has stimulated the search for novel strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is one of the promising alternatives to conventional treatments based on antibiotics. Here, we present a comparative study of two aryl tricationic porphycenes where photoinactivation efficiency against model pathogenic microorganisms is correlated to the photophysical behavior of the porphycene derivatives. Moreover, the extent of photosensitizer cell binding to bacteria has been assessed by flow cytometry in experiments with, or without, removing the unbound porphycene from the incubation medium. Results show that the peripheral substituent change do not significantly affect the overall behavior for both tricationic compounds neither in terms of photokilling efficiency, nor in terms of binding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1183 KiB  
Article
Immunoregulatory Cell Depletion Improves the Efficacy of Photodynamic Therapy-Generated Cancer Vaccines
by Mladen Korbelik, Judit Banáth and Kyi Min Saw
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(11), 27005-27014; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161126008 - 12 Nov 2015
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5314
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT)-generated cancer vaccine represents an attractive potential application of PDT, therapeutic modality destroying targeted lesions by localized photooxidative stress. Since immunoregulatory cell activity has become recognized as a major obstacle to effective cancer immunotherapy, the present study examined their participation in [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT)-generated cancer vaccine represents an attractive potential application of PDT, therapeutic modality destroying targeted lesions by localized photooxidative stress. Since immunoregulatory cell activity has become recognized as a major obstacle to effective cancer immunotherapy, the present study examined their participation in the therapeutic effect of PDT cancer vaccine. Following protocols from previous studies, mouse with squamous cell carcinoma SCCVII tumors were vaccinated by SCCVII cells treated by PDT and response monitored by tumor size measurement. The effects of low-dose cyclophosphamide (50 mg/kg) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) on the numbers of Tregs and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were determined by antibody staining followed by flow cytometry, while their impact on PDT vaccine therapy was evaluated by monitoring changes in tumor responses. Cyclophosphamide effectively reduced the numbers of Tregs, which became elevated following PDT vaccine treatment, and this resulted in an increase in the vaccine’s effectiveness. A similar benefit for the therapy outcome with PDT vaccine was attained by ATRA treatment. The activities of Tregs and MDSCs thus have a critical impact on therapy outcome with PDT vaccine and reducing their numbers substantially improves the vaccine’s effectiveness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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361 KiB  
Article
Neoadjuvant Down-Sizing of Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma with Photodynamic Therapy—Long-Term Outcome of a Phase II Pilot Study
by Andrej Wagner, Marcus Wiedmann, Andrea Tannapfel, Christian Mayr, Tobias Kiesslich, Gernot W. Wolkersdörfer, Frieder Berr, Johann Hauss and Helmut Witzigmann
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(11), 26619-26628; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161125978 - 06 Nov 2015
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5869
Abstract
Hilar cholangiocarcinoma (CC) is non-resectable in the majority of patients often due to intrahepatic extension along bile duct branches/segments, and even after complete resection (R0) recurrence can be as high as 70%. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established palliative local tumor ablative treatment [...] Read more.
Hilar cholangiocarcinoma (CC) is non-resectable in the majority of patients often due to intrahepatic extension along bile duct branches/segments, and even after complete resection (R0) recurrence can be as high as 70%. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established palliative local tumor ablative treatment for non-resectable hilar CC. We report the long-term outcome of curative resection (R0) performed after neoadjuvant PDT for downsizing of tumor margins in seven patients (median age 59 years) with initially non-resectable hilar CC. Photofrin® was injected intravenously 24–48 h before laser light irradiation of the tumor stenoses and the adjacent bile duct segments. Major resective surgery was done with curative intention six weeks after PDT. All seven patients had been curatively (R0) resected and there were no undue early or late complications for the neoadjuvant PDT and surgery. Six of seven patients died from tumor recurrence at a median of 3.2 years after resection, the five-year survival rate was 43%. These results are comparable with published data for patients resected R0 without pre-treatment, indicating that neoadjuvant PDT is feasible and could improve overall survival of patients considered non-curatively resectable because of initial tumor extension in bile duct branches/segments—however, this concept needs to be validated in a larger trial. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1030 KiB  
Article
Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) with Chemotherapy for Advanced Lung Cancer with Airway Stenosis
by Masakazu Kimura, Kuniharu Miyajima, Masakazu Kojika, Takafumi Kono and Harubumi Kato
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25466-25475; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161025466 - 23 Oct 2015
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 7967
Abstract
Intractable advanced lung cancer can be treated palliatively with photodynamic therapy (PDT) combined with chemotherapy to remove central and peripheral (lobar or segmental bronchi) bronchial stenosis and obstruction. We present data for 12 (eight men, four women) consecutive patients with 13 advanced non-small [...] Read more.
Intractable advanced lung cancer can be treated palliatively with photodynamic therapy (PDT) combined with chemotherapy to remove central and peripheral (lobar or segmental bronchi) bronchial stenosis and obstruction. We present data for 12 (eight men, four women) consecutive patients with 13 advanced non-small cell lung carcinomas in whom curative operations were contraindicated, who underwent PDT combined with chemotherapy for local control of the intraluminal lesions. The mean age was 73.3 years (range, 58–80 years), and the stages of cancer were IIA–IV. The median stenosis rates before treatment, one week post-treatment, and one month post-treatment were 60% (range, 30%–100%), 15% (range, 15%–99%), and 15% (range 15%–60%), respectively. The mean and median survival times were 9.3 and 5.9 months, respectively. The overall 1-year survival rate was 30.0%. No PDT-related morbidity or mortality occurred. In this single-institution study, all patients experienced improved symptoms and quality of life at one week after treatment; furthermore, an objective response was evidenced by the substantial increase in the openings of the bronchial lumen and prevention of obstructive pneumonia. Therefore, PDT with chemotherapy was useful and safe for the treatment of bronchial obstruction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1044 KiB  
Article
New Peptide-Conjugated Chlorin-Type Photosensitizer Targeting Neuropilin-1 for Anti-Vascular Targeted Photodynamic Therapy
by Ezatul Ezleen Kamarulzaman, Amirah Mohd Gazzali, Samir Acherar, Céline Frochot, Muriel Barberi-Heyob, Cédric Boura, Patrick Chaimbault, Estelle Sibille, Habibah A. Wahab and Régis Vanderesse
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 24059-24080; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161024059 - 12 Oct 2015
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7089
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cancer treatment modality that requires three components, namely light, dioxygen and a photosensitizing agent. After light excitation, the photosensitizer (PS) in its excited state transfers its energy to oxygen, which leads to photooxidation reactions. In order to improve [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cancer treatment modality that requires three components, namely light, dioxygen and a photosensitizing agent. After light excitation, the photosensitizer (PS) in its excited state transfers its energy to oxygen, which leads to photooxidation reactions. In order to improve the selectivity of the treatment, research has focused on the design of PS covalently attached to a tumor-targeting moiety. In this paper, we describe the synthesis and the physico-chemical and photophysical properties of six new peptide-conjugated photosensitizers designed for targeting the neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) receptor. We chose a TPC (5-(4-carboxyphenyl)-10,15, 20-triphenyl chlorine as photosensitizer, coupled via three different spacers (aminohexanoic acid, 1-amino-3,6-dioxaoctanoic acid, and 1-amino-9-aza-3,6,12,15-tetraoxa-10-on-heptadecanoic acid) to two different peptides (DKPPR and TKPRR). The affinity towards the NRP-1 receptor of the conjugated chlorins was evaluated along with in vitro and in vivo stability levels. The tissue concentration of the TPC-conjugates in animal model shows good distribution, especially for the DKPPR conjugates. The novel peptide–PS conjugates proposed in this study were proven to have potential to be further developed as future NRP-1 targeting photodynamic therapy agent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1754 KiB  
Article
Increased Histone Deacetylase Activity Involved in the Suppressed Invasion of Cancer Cells Survived from ALA-Mediated Photodynamic Treatment
by Pei-Tzu Li, Yi-Jane Tsai, Ming-Jen Lee and Chin-Tin Chen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23994-24010; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023994 - 10 Oct 2015
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7860
Abstract
Previously, we have found that cancer cells survived from 5-Aminolevulinic acid-mediated photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT) have abnormal mitochondrial function and suppressed cellular invasiveness. Here we report that both the mRNA expression level and enzymatic activity of histone deacetylase (HDAC) were elevated in the PDT-derived [...] Read more.
Previously, we have found that cancer cells survived from 5-Aminolevulinic acid-mediated photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT) have abnormal mitochondrial function and suppressed cellular invasiveness. Here we report that both the mRNA expression level and enzymatic activity of histone deacetylase (HDAC) were elevated in the PDT-derived variants with dysfunctional mitochondria. The activated HDAC deacetylated histone H3 and further resulted in the reduced migration and invasion, which correlated with the reduced expression of the invasion-related genes, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), paternally expressed gene 1 (PEG1), and miR-355, the intronic miRNA. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation, we further demonstrate the reduced amount of acetylated histone H3 on the promoter regions of MMP9 and PEG1, supporting the down-regulation of these two genes in PDT-derived variants. These results indicate that HDAC activation induced by mitochondrial dysfunction could modulate the cellular invasiveness and its related gene expression. This argument was further verified in the 51-10 cybrid cells with the 4977 bp mtDNA deletion and A375 ρ0 cells with depleted mitochondria. These results indicate that mitochondrial dysfunction might suppress tumor invasion through modulating histone acetylation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1059 KiB  
Article
Insulin-Like Growth Factor-2 Is Induced Following 5-Aminolevulinic Acid-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy in SW620 Human Colon Cancer Cell Line
by Marta Woźniak, Kamila Duś-Szachniewicz and Piotr Ziółkowski
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23615-23629; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023615 - 02 Oct 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5727
Abstract
The IGF system is a family of polypeptide growth factors, which plays a significant role in the development and growth of many cells. Dysregulation of insulin-like growth factors and their pathway components has been connected with essential tumor properties, such as tumor cell [...] Read more.
The IGF system is a family of polypeptide growth factors, which plays a significant role in the development and growth of many cells. Dysregulation of insulin-like growth factors and their pathway components has been connected with essential tumor properties, such as tumor cell proliferation, antiapoptotic properties, invasive behavior and chemotherapy resistance. However, the effects of photodynamic therapy (PDT), one of the cancer treatment methods for the regulation of the IGF signaling pathway, are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of IGF-2 after 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-mediated-PDT in SW620 human colorectal cancer cells with evaluation of cell proliferation and apoptosis and to determine the effects of PDT on the IGF-2 receptor (IGF-2R), IGF-2 binding protein-1 (IGF-2BP-1) and the proapoptotic protein, BAX. Cells were treated with 5-aminolevulinic acid and its methyl ester. Changes of the expression and concentration of IGF-2 before and after treatment were assayed by immunocytochemistry, Western blot and ELISA. We found that IGF-2 was significantly overexpressed in the SW620 cell line, while its receptor and binding protein-1 were not significantly changed. Within this study, we would like to suggest that IGF-2 contributes to the effects of PDT and that its expression will influence post-PDT efficacy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
The Effect of Coatings on the Affinity of Lanthanide Nanoparticles to MKN45 and HeLa Cancer Cells and Improvement in Photodynamic Therapy Efficiency
by Takashi Sawamura, Tatsumi Tanaka, Hiroyuki Ishige, Masayuki Iizuka, Yasutoshi Murayama, Eigo Otsuji, Akihiro Ohkubo, Shun-Ichiro Ogura and Hideya Yuasa
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 22415-22424; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160922415 - 16 Sep 2015
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6297
Abstract
An improvement in photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficiency against a human gastric cancer cell line (MKN45) with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and lanthanide nanoparticles (LNPs) is described. An endogenous photosensitizer, protoporphyrin IX, biosynthesized from ALA and selectively accumulated in cancer cells, is sensitizable by the [...] Read more.
An improvement in photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficiency against a human gastric cancer cell line (MKN45) with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and lanthanide nanoparticles (LNPs) is described. An endogenous photosensitizer, protoporphyrin IX, biosynthesized from ALA and selectively accumulated in cancer cells, is sensitizable by the visible lights emitted from up-conversion LNPs, which can be excited by a near-infrared light. Ten kinds of surface modifications were performed on LNPs, NaYF4(Sc/Yb/Er) and NaYF4(Yb/Tm), in an aim to distribute these irradiation light sources near cancer cells. Among these LNPs, only the amino-functionalized LNPs showed affinity to MKN45 and HeLa cancer cells. A PDT assay with MKN45 demonstrated that amino-modified NaYF4(Sc/Yb/Er) gave rise to a dramatically enhanced PDT effect, reaching almost perfect lethality, whereas NaYF4(Yb/Tm)-based systems caused little improvement in PDT efficiency. The improvement of PDT effect with the amino-modified NaYF4(Sc/Yb/Er) is promising for a practical PDT against deep cancer cells that are reachable only by near-infrared lights. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1156 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Evaluation of a Chitosan/Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose Hydrogel Containing Toluidine Blue O for Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation
by Chueh-Pin Chen, Chien-Ming Hsieh, Tsuimin Tsai, Jen-Chang Yang and Chin-Tin Chen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 20859-20872; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160920859 - 01 Sep 2015
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7584
Abstract
Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) combined with chitosan has been shown as a promising antimicrobial approach. The purpose of this study was to develop a chitosan hydrogel containing hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), chitosan and toluidine blue O (TBO) to improve the bactericidal efficacy for topical application [...] Read more.
Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) combined with chitosan has been shown as a promising antimicrobial approach. The purpose of this study was to develop a chitosan hydrogel containing hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), chitosan and toluidine blue O (TBO) to improve the bactericidal efficacy for topical application in clinics. The PDI efficacy of hydrogel was examined in vitro against the biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) was performed to investigate the penetration level of TBO into viable S. aureus biofilms. Incorporation of HMPC could increase the physicochemical properties of chitosan hydrogel including the hardness, viscosity as well as bioadhesion; however, higher HMPC concentration also resulted in reduced antimicrobial effect. CSLM analysis further demonstrated that higher HPMC concentration constrained TBO diffusion into the biofilm. The incubation of biofilm and hydrogel was further performed at an angle of 90 degrees. After light irradiation, compared to the mixture of TBO and chitosan, the hydrogel treated sample showed increased PDI efficacy indicated that incorporation of HPMC did improve antimicrobial effect. Finally, the bactericidal efficacy could be significantly augmented by prolonged retention of hydrogel in the biofilm as well as in the animal model of rat skin burn wounds after light irradiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Photodynamic and Antibiotic Therapy in Combination to Fight Biofilms and Resistant Surface Bacterial Infections
by Federica Barra, Emanuela Roscetto, Amata A. Soriano, Adriana Vollaro, Ilaria Postiglione, Giovanna Maria Pierantoni, Giuseppe Palumbo and Maria Rosaria Catania
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 20417-20430; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160920417 - 28 Aug 2015
Cited by 75 | Viewed by 6238
Abstract
Although photodynamic therapy (PDT), a therapeutic approach that involves a photosensitizer, light and O2, has been principally considered for the treatment of specific types of cancers, other applications exist, including the treatment of infections. Unfortunately, PDT does not always guarantee full [...] Read more.
Although photodynamic therapy (PDT), a therapeutic approach that involves a photosensitizer, light and O2, has been principally considered for the treatment of specific types of cancers, other applications exist, including the treatment of infections. Unfortunately, PDT does not always guarantee full success since it exerts lethal effects only in cells that have taken up a sufficient amount of photosensitizer and have been exposed to adequate light doses, conditions that are not always achieved. Based on our previous experience on the combination PDT/chemotherapy, we have explored the possibility of fighting bacteria that commonly crowd infected surfaces by combining PDT with an antibiotic, which normally does not harm the strain at low concentrations. To this purpose, we employed 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a pro-drug that, once absorbed by proliferating bacteria, is converted into the natural photosensitizer Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), followed by Gentamicin. Photoactivation generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) which damage or kill the cell, while Gentamicin, even at low doses, ends the work. Our experiments, in combination, have been highly successful against biofilms produced by several Gram positive bacteria (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, etc.). This original approach points to potentially new and wide applications in the therapy of infections of superficial wounds and sores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Mitochondrial Malfunctioning, Proteasome Arrest and Apoptosis in Cancer Cells by Focused Intracellular Generation of Oxygen Radicals
by Ilaria Postiglione, Angela Chiaviello, Federica Barra, Emanuela Roscetto, Amata A. Soriano, Maria Rosaria Catania, Giuseppe Palumbo and Giovanna Maria Pierantoni
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 20375-20391; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160920375 - 28 Aug 2015
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5286
Abstract
Photofrin/photodynamic therapy (PDT) at sub-lethal doses induced a transient stall in proteasome activity in surviving A549 (p53+/+) and H1299 (p53−/−) cells as indicated by the time-dependent decline/recovery of chymotrypsin-like activity. Indeed, within 3 h of incubation, Photofrin invaded the [...] Read more.
Photofrin/photodynamic therapy (PDT) at sub-lethal doses induced a transient stall in proteasome activity in surviving A549 (p53+/+) and H1299 (p53−/−) cells as indicated by the time-dependent decline/recovery of chymotrypsin-like activity. Indeed, within 3 h of incubation, Photofrin invaded the cytoplasm and localized preferentially within the mitochondria. Its light activation determined a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and a reversible arrest in proteasomal activity. A similar result is obtained by treating cells with Antimycin and Rotenone, indicating, as a common denominator of this effect, the ATP decrease. Both inhibitors, however, were more toxic to cells as the recovery of proteasomal activity was incomplete. We evaluated whether combining PDT (which is a treatment for killing tumor cells, per se, and inducing proteasome arrest in the surviving ones) with Bortezomib doses capable of sustaining the stall would protract the arrest with sufficient time to induce apoptosis in remaining cells. The evaluation of the mitochondrial membrane depolarization, residual proteasome and mitochondrial enzymatic activities, colony-forming capabilities, and changes in protein expression profiles in A549 and H1299 cells under a combined therapeutic regimen gave results consistent with our hypothesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Inhibition of NF-κB in Tumor Cells Exacerbates Immune Cell Activation Following Photodynamic Therapy
by Mans Broekgaarden, Milan Kos, Freek A. Jurg, Adriaan A. Van Beek, Thomas M. Van Gulik and Michal Heger
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(8), 19960-19977; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160819960 - 21 Aug 2015
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6815
Abstract
Although photodynamic therapy (PDT) yields very good outcomes in numerous types of superficial solid cancers, some tumors respond suboptimally to PDT. Novel treatment strategies are therefore needed to enhance the efficacy in these therapy-resistant tumors. One of these strategies is to combine PDT [...] Read more.
Although photodynamic therapy (PDT) yields very good outcomes in numerous types of superficial solid cancers, some tumors respond suboptimally to PDT. Novel treatment strategies are therefore needed to enhance the efficacy in these therapy-resistant tumors. One of these strategies is to combine PDT with inhibitors of PDT-induced survival pathways. In this respect, the transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) has been identified as a potential pharmacological target, albeit inhibition of NF-κB may concurrently dampen the subsequent anti-tumor immune response required for complete tumor eradication and abscopal effects. In contrast to these postulations, this study demonstrated that siRNA knockdown of NF-κB in murine breast carcinoma (EMT-6) cells increased survival signaling in these cells and exacerbated the inflammatory response in murine RAW 264.7 macrophages. These results suggest a pro-death and immunosuppressive role of NF-κB in PDT-treated cells that concurs with a hyperstimulated immune response in innate immune cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
5-ALA Fluorescence Image Guided Resection of Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Meta-Analysis of the Literature
by Samy Eljamel
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 10443-10456; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160510443 - 07 May 2015
Cited by 87 | Viewed by 7740
Abstract
Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most deadly cancers in humans. Despite recent advances in anti-cancer therapies, most patients with GBM die from local disease progression. Fluorescence image guided surgical resection (FIGR) was recently advocated to enhance local control of GBM. [...] Read more.
Background: Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most deadly cancers in humans. Despite recent advances in anti-cancer therapies, most patients with GBM die from local disease progression. Fluorescence image guided surgical resection (FIGR) was recently advocated to enhance local control of GBM. This is meta-analyses of 5-aminolevulinic (5-ALA) induced FIGR. Materials: Review of the literature produced 503 potential publications; only 20 of these fulfilled the inclusion criteria of this analysis, including a total of 565 patients treated with 5-ALA-FIGR reporting on its outcomes and 800 histological samples reporting 5-ALA-FIGR sensitivity and specificity. Results: The mean gross total resection (GTR) rate was 75.4% (95% CI: 67.4–83.5, p < 0.001). The mean time to tumor progression (TTP) was 8.1 months (95% CI: 4.7–12, p < 0.001). The mean overall survival gain reported was 6.2 months (95% CI: −1–13, p < 0.001). The specificity was 88.9% (95% CI: 83.9–93.9, p < 0.001) and the sensitivity was 82.6% (95% CI: 73.9–91.9, p < 0.001). Conclusion: 5-ALA-FIGR in GBM is highly sensitive and specific, and imparts significant benefits to patients in terms of improved GTR and TTP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Resistance of Lung Cancer Cells Grown as Multicellular Tumour Spheroids to Zinc Sulfophthalocyanine Photosensitization
by Sello Lebohang Manoto, Nicolette Nadene Houreld and Heidi Abrahamse
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 10185-10200; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160510185 - 05 May 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5049
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is phototherapeutic modality used in the treatment of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases. The photochemical interaction of light, photosensitizer (PS) and molecular oxygen produces singlet oxygen which induces cell death. Zinc sulfophthalocyanine (ZnPcSmix) has been shown to be effective [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is phototherapeutic modality used in the treatment of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases. The photochemical interaction of light, photosensitizer (PS) and molecular oxygen produces singlet oxygen which induces cell death. Zinc sulfophthalocyanine (ZnPcSmix) has been shown to be effective in A549 monolayers, multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs) (250 µm) and not on MCTSs with a size of 500 µm. A549 cells used in this study were grown as MCTSs to a size of 500 µm in order to determine their susceptibility to PDT. ZnPcSmix distribution in MCTSs and nuclear morphology was determined using a fluorescent microscope. Changes in cellular responses were evaluated using cell morphology, viability, proliferation, cytotoxicity, cell death analysis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Untreated MCTSs, showed no changes in cellular morphology, proliferation, cytotoxicity and nuclear morphology. Photoactivated ZnPcSmix also showed no changes in cellular morphology and nuclear morphology. However, photoactivated ZnPcSmix resulted in a significant dose dependant decrease in viability and proliferation as well as an increase in cell membrane damage in MCTSs over time. ZnPcSmix photosensitization induces apoptotic cell death in MCTSs with a size of 500 µm and more resistantance when compared to monolayer cells and MCTSs with a size of 250 µm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
Aminolevulinic Acid-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy of Human Meningioma: An in Vitro Study on Primary Cell Lines
by Mustafa El-Khatib, Carolin Tepe, Brigitte Senger, Maxine Dibué-Adjei, Markus Johannes Riemenschneider, Walter Stummer, Hans Jakob Steiger and Jan Frédérick Cornelius
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 9936-9948; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16059936 - 30 Apr 2015
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6380
Abstract
Objective: Five-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-induced porphyrins in malignant gliomas are potent photosensitizers. Promising results of ALA-PDT (photodynamic therapy) in recurrent glioblastomas have been published. Recently, 5-ALA-induced fluorescence was studied in meningioma surgery. Here, we present an experimental study of ALA-PDT in an in vitro [...] Read more.
Objective: Five-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-induced porphyrins in malignant gliomas are potent photosensitizers. Promising results of ALA-PDT (photodynamic therapy) in recurrent glioblastomas have been published. Recently, 5-ALA-induced fluorescence was studied in meningioma surgery. Here, we present an experimental study of ALA-PDT in an in vitro model of primary meningioma cell lines. Methods: We processed native tumor material obtained intra-operatively within 24 h for cell culture. Epithelial membrane antigen (EMA) immunohistochemistry was performed after the first passage to confirm that cells were meningioma cells. For 5-ALA-PDT treatment, about 5000 cells per well were seeded in 20 wells of a blank 96-well plate. Each block of 4 wells was inoculated with 150 µL of 0, 25, 50 and 100 µg/mL 5-ALA solutions; one block was used as negative control without 5-ALA and without PDT. Following incubation for 3 h PDT was performed using a laser (635 nm, 18.75 J/cm2). The therapeutic response was analyzed by the water soluble tetrazolium salt (WST-1) cell viability assay 90 min after PDT. Results: 5-ALA-PDT was performed in 14 primary meningioma cell lines. EMA expression was verified in 10 primary cell cultures. The remaining 4 were EMA negative and PDT was without any effect in these cultures. All 10 EMA-positive cell lines showed a significant and dose-dependent decrease in viability rate (p < 0.001). Cell survival at 5-ALA concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 μg/mL was 96.5% ± 7.6%, 67.9% ± 29.9%, 24.0% ± 16.7% and 13.8% ± 7.5%, respectively. For the negative controls (no 5-ALA/PDT and ALA/no PDT), the viability rates were 101.72% ± 3.5% and 100.17% ± 3.6%, respectively. The LD50 for 5-ALA was estimated between 25 and 50 µg/mL. Conclusion: This study reveals dose-dependent cytotoxic effects of 5-ALA-PDT on primary cell lines of meningiomas. Either 5-ALA or PDT alone did not affect cell survival. Further efforts are necessary to study the potential therapeutic effects of 5-ALA-PDT in vivo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Article
The Photodynamic Antibacterial Effects of Silicon Phthalocyanine (Pc) 4
by Matthew L. Dimaano, Chantal Rozario, Michelle M. Nerandzic, Curtis J. Donskey, Minh Lam and Elma D. Baron
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(4), 7851-7860; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16047851 - 08 Apr 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5291
Abstract
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains in facultative anaerobic Gram-positive coccal bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is a global health issue. Typically, MRSA strains are found associated with institutions like hospitals but recent data suggest that they are becoming more prevalent in [...] Read more.
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains in facultative anaerobic Gram-positive coccal bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), is a global health issue. Typically, MRSA strains are found associated with institutions like hospitals but recent data suggest that they are becoming more prevalent in community-acquired infections. It is thought that the incidence and prevalence of bacterial infections will continue to increase as (a) more frequent use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and immunosuppressive medications; (b) increased number of invasive medical procedures; and (c) higher incidence of neutropenia and HIV infections. Therefore, more optimal treatments, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), are warranted. PDT requires the interaction of light, a photosensitizing agent, and molecular oxygen to induce cytotoxic effects. In this study, we investigated the efficacy and characterized the mechanism of cytotoxicity induced by photodynamic therapy sensitized by silicon phthalocyanine (Pc) 4 on (a) methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) (ATCC 25923); (b) community acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) (ATCC 43300); and (c) hospital acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) (PFGE type 300). Our data include confocal image analysis, which confirmed that Pc 4 is taken up by all S. aureus strains, and viable cell recovery assay, which showed that concentrations as low as 1.0 μM Pc 4 incubated for 3 h at 37 °C followed by light at 2.0 J/cm2 can reduce cell survival by 2–5 logs. These results are encouraging, but before PDT can be utilized as an alternative treatment for eradicating resistant strains, we must first characterize the mechanism of cell death that Pc 4-based PDT employs in eliminating these pathogens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review

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Review
Photodynamic Therapy in Non-Gastrointestinal Thoracic Malignancies
by Biniam Kidane, Dhruvin Hirpara and Kazuhiro Yasufuku
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17010135 - 21 Jan 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6333
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy has a role in the management of early and late thoracic malignancies. It can be used to facilitate minimally-invasive treatment of early endobronchial tumours and also to palliate obstructive and bleeding effects of advanced endobronchial tumours. Photodynamic therapy has been used [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy has a role in the management of early and late thoracic malignancies. It can be used to facilitate minimally-invasive treatment of early endobronchial tumours and also to palliate obstructive and bleeding effects of advanced endobronchial tumours. Photodynamic therapy has been used as a means of downsizing tumours to allow for resection, as well as reducing the extent of resection necessary. It has also been used successfully for minimally-invasive management of local recurrences, which is especially valuable for patients who are not eligible for radiation therapy. Photodynamic therapy has also shown promising results in mesothelioma and pleural-based metastatic disease. As new generation photosensitizers are being developed and tested and methodological issues continue to be addressed, the role of photodynamic therapy in thoracic malignancies continues to evolve. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
The in Vitro Antimicrobial Efficacy of PDT against Periodontopathogenic Bacteria
by Philippe A. Haag, Valerie Steiger-Ronay and Patrick R. Schmidlin
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(11), 27327-27338; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161126027 - 13 Nov 2015
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6314
Abstract
Periodontitis, an inflammatory disease, is caused by biofilms with a mixed microbial etiology and involves the progressive destruction of the tooth-supporting tissues. A rising number of studies investigate the clinical potential of photodynamic therapy (PDT) as an adjunct during active therapy. The aim [...] Read more.
Periodontitis, an inflammatory disease, is caused by biofilms with a mixed microbial etiology and involves the progressive destruction of the tooth-supporting tissues. A rising number of studies investigate the clinical potential of photodynamic therapy (PDT) as an adjunct during active therapy. The aim of the present review was to evaluate the available literature for the in vitro antimicrobial efficacy of photodynamic therapy focusing on the periodontopathogenic bacteria Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum. The focused question was: “Is it possible to decrease (at least 3 log steps or 99.9%) or even eliminate bacterial growth by photodynamic therapy in vitro when compared to untreated control groups or control groups treated by placebo?” In general, PDT resulted in a substantial reduction of surviving bacteria. However, not all studies showed the desired reduction or elimination. The ranges of log10-reduction were 0.38 (58%) to a complete eradication (100%) for P. gingivalis, 0.21 (39%) to 100% for A. actinomycetemcomitans and 0.3 (50%) to 100% for F. nucleatum. In conclusion, further and particularly more comparable studies are needed to evaluate if PDT can be clinically successful as an adjuvant in periodontal therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Combined Treatments with Photodynamic Therapy for Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer
by Silvia Rocío Lucena, Nerea Salazar, Tamara Gracia-Cazaña, Alicia Zamarrón, Salvador González, Ángeles Juarranz and Yolanda Gilaberte
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25912-25933; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161025912 - 28 Oct 2015
Cited by 107 | Viewed by 11673
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most common form of cancer in the Caucasian population. Among NMSC types, basal cell carcinoma (BCC) has the highest incidence and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is less common although it can metastasize, accounting for the majority of [...] Read more.
Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most common form of cancer in the Caucasian population. Among NMSC types, basal cell carcinoma (BCC) has the highest incidence and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is less common although it can metastasize, accounting for the majority of NMSC-related deaths. Treatment options for NMSC include both surgical and non-surgical modalities. Even though surgical approaches are most commonly used to treat these lesions, Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) has the advantage of being a non-invasive option, and capable of field treatment, providing optimum cosmetic outcomes. Numerous clinical research studies have shown the efficacy of PDT for treating pre-malignant and malignant NMSC. However, resistant or recurrent tumors appear and sometimes become more aggressive. In this sense, the enhancement of PDT effectiveness by combining it with other therapeutic modalities has become an interesting field in NMSC research. Depending on the characteristics and the type of tumor, PDT can be applied in combination with immunomodulatory (Imiquimod) and chemotherapeutic (5-fluorouracil, methotrexate, diclofenac, or ingenol mebutate) agents, inhibitors of some molecules implicated in the carcinogenic process (COX2 or MAPK), surgical techniques, or even radiotherapy. These new strategies open the way to a wider improvement of the prevention and eradication of skin cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Aminolevulinic Acid-Based Tumor Detection and Therapy: Molecular Mechanisms and Strategies for Enhancement
by Xue Yang, Pratheeba Palasuberniam, Daniel Kraus and Bin Chen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25865-25880; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161025865 - 28 Oct 2015
Cited by 126 | Viewed by 8302
Abstract
Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is the first metabolite in the heme biosynthesis pathway in humans. In addition to the end product heme, this pathway also produces other porphyrin metabolites. Protoporphyrin (PpIX) is one heme precursor porphyrin with good fluorescence and photosensitizing activity. Because tumors [...] Read more.
Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is the first metabolite in the heme biosynthesis pathway in humans. In addition to the end product heme, this pathway also produces other porphyrin metabolites. Protoporphyrin (PpIX) is one heme precursor porphyrin with good fluorescence and photosensitizing activity. Because tumors and other proliferating cells tend to exhibit a higher level of PpIX than normal cells after ALA incubation, ALA has been used as a prodrug to enable PpIX fluorescence detection and photodynamic therapy (PDT) of lesion tissues. Extensive studies have been carried out in the past twenty years to explore why some tumors exhibit elevated ALA-mediated PpIX and how to enhance PpIX levels to achieve better tumor detection and treatment. Here we would like to summarize previous research in order to stimulate future studies on these important topics. In this review, we focus on summarizing tumor-associated alterations in heme biosynthesis enzymes, mitochondrial functions and porphyrin transporters that contribute to ALA-PpIX increase in tumors. Mechanism-based therapeutic strategies for enhancing ALA-based modalities including iron chelators, differentiation agents and PpIX transporter inhibitors are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Adjunctive Application of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy in Nonsurgical Periodontal Treatment: A Review of Literature
by Takeshi Kikuchi, Makio Mogi, Iichiro Okabe, Kosuke Okada, Hisashi Goto, Yasuyuki Sasaki, Takeki Fujimura, Mitsuo Fukuda and Akio Mitani
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 24111-24126; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161024111 - 13 Oct 2015
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 11482
Abstract
Periodontal disease is caused by dental plaque biofilms, and the removal of these biofilms from the root surface of teeth plays a central part in its treatment. The conventional treatment for periodontal disease fails to remove periodontal infection in a subset of cases, [...] Read more.
Periodontal disease is caused by dental plaque biofilms, and the removal of these biofilms from the root surface of teeth plays a central part in its treatment. The conventional treatment for periodontal disease fails to remove periodontal infection in a subset of cases, such as those with complicated root morphology. Adjunctive antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has been proposed as an additional treatment for this infectious disease. Many periodontal pathogenic bacteria are susceptible to low-power lasers in the presence of dyes, such as methylene blue, toluidine blue O, malachite green, and indocyanine green. aPDT uses these light-activated photosensitizer that is incorporated selectively by bacteria and absorbs a low-power laser/light with an appropriate wavelength to induce singlet oxygen and free radicals, which are toxic to bacteria. While this technique has been evaluated by many clinical studies, some systematic reviews and meta-analyses have reported controversial results about the benefits of aPDT for periodontal treatment. In the light of these previous reports, the aim of this review is to provide comprehensive information about aPDT and help extend knowledge of advanced laser therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Usefulness of Photodynamic Therapy as a Possible Therapeutic Alternative in the Treatment of Basal Cell Carcinoma
by Paola Savoia, Tommaso Deboli, Alberto Previgliano and Paolo Broganelli
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23300-23317; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023300 - 28 Sep 2015
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5704
Abstract
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common cancer in individuals with fair skin type (I–II) and steadily increasing in incidence (70% of skin malignancy). It is locally invasive but metastasis is usually very rare, with an estimated incidence of 0.0028%–0.55%. Conventional therapy [...] Read more.
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common cancer in individuals with fair skin type (I–II) and steadily increasing in incidence (70% of skin malignancy). It is locally invasive but metastasis is usually very rare, with an estimated incidence of 0.0028%–0.55%. Conventional therapy is surgery, especially for the H region of the face and infiltrative lesions; in case of inoperable tumors, radiotherapy is a valid option. Recently, topical photodynamic therapy (PDT) has become an effective treatment in the management of superficial and small nodular BCC. PDT is a minimally invasive procedure that involves the administration of a photo-sensibilizing agent followed by irradiation at a pre-defined wavelength; this determines the creation of reactive oxygen species that specifically destroy target cells. The only major side effect is pain, reported by some patients during the irradiation. The high cure rate and excellent cosmetic outcome requires considering this possibility for the management of patients with both sporadic and hereditary BCC. In this article, an extensive review of the recent literature was made, in order to clarify the role of PDT as a possible alternative therapeutic option in the treatment of BCC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Topical PDT in the Treatment of Benign Skin Diseases: Principles and New Applications
by Miri Kim, Haw Young Jung and Hyun Jeong Park
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 23259-23278; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms161023259 - 25 Sep 2015
Cited by 85 | Viewed by 11793
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a photosensitizer, light energy, and molecular oxygen to cause cell damage. Cells exposed to the photosensitizer are susceptible to destruction upon light absorption because excitation of the photosensitizing agents leads to the production of reactive oxygen species and, subsequently, [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a photosensitizer, light energy, and molecular oxygen to cause cell damage. Cells exposed to the photosensitizer are susceptible to destruction upon light absorption because excitation of the photosensitizing agents leads to the production of reactive oxygen species and, subsequently, direct cytotoxicity. Using the intrinsic cellular heme biosynthetic pathway, topical PDT selectively targets abnormal cells, while preserving normal surrounding tissues. This selective cytotoxic effect is the basis for the use of PDT in antitumor treatment. Clinically, PDT is a widely used therapeutic regimen for oncologic skin conditions such as actinic keratosis, squamous cell carcinoma in situ, and basal cell carcinoma. PDT has been shown, under certain circumstances, to stimulate the immune system and produce antibacterial, and/or regenerative effects while protecting cell viability. Thus, it may be useful for treating benign skin conditions. An increasing number of studies support the idea that PDT may be effective for treating acne vulgaris and several other inflammatory/infective skin diseases, including psoriasis, rosacea, viral warts, and aging-related changes. This review provides an overview of the clinical investigations of PDT and discusses each of the essential aspects of the sequence: its mechanism of action, common photosensitizers, light sources, and clinical applications in dermatology. Of the numerous clinical trials of PDT in dermatology, this review focuses on those studies that have reported remarkable therapeutic benefits following topical PDT for benign skin conditions such as acne vulgaris, viral warts, and photorejuvenation without causing severe side effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Drug Carrier for Photodynamic Cancer Therapy
by Tilahun Ayane Debele, Sydney Peng and Hsieh-Chih Tsai
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 22094-22136; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160922094 - 14 Sep 2015
Cited by 185 | Viewed by 13018
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive combinatorial therapeutic modality using light, photosensitizer (PS), and oxygen used for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. When PSs in cells are exposed to specific wavelengths of light, they are transformed from the singlet ground state [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive combinatorial therapeutic modality using light, photosensitizer (PS), and oxygen used for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. When PSs in cells are exposed to specific wavelengths of light, they are transformed from the singlet ground state (S0) to an excited singlet state (S1–Sn), followed by intersystem crossing to an excited triplet state (T1). The energy transferred from T1 to biological substrates and molecular oxygen, via type I and II reactions, generates reactive oxygen species, (1O2, H2O2, O2*, HO*), which causes cellular damage that leads to tumor cell death through necrosis or apoptosis. The solubility, selectivity, and targeting of photosensitizers are important factors that must be considered in PDT. Nano-formulating PSs with organic and inorganic nanoparticles poses as potential strategy to satisfy the requirements of an ideal PDT system. In this review, we summarize several organic and inorganic PS carriers that have been studied to enhance the efficacy of photodynamic therapy against cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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Review
Photodynamic Efficiency: From Molecular Photochemistry to Cell Death
by Isabel O. L. Bacellar, Tayana M. Tsubone, Christiane Pavani and Mauricio S. Baptista
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(9), 20523-20559; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160920523 - 31 Aug 2015
Cited by 297 | Viewed by 12552
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinical modality used to treat cancer and infectious diseases. The main agent is the photosensitizer (PS), which is excited by light and converted to a triplet excited state. This latter species leads to the formation of singlet oxygen [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinical modality used to treat cancer and infectious diseases. The main agent is the photosensitizer (PS), which is excited by light and converted to a triplet excited state. This latter species leads to the formation of singlet oxygen and radicals that oxidize biomolecules. The main motivation for this review is to suggest alternatives for achieving high-efficiency PDT protocols, by taking advantage of knowledge on the chemical and biological processes taking place during and after photosensitization. We defend that in order to obtain specific mechanisms of cell death and maximize PDT efficiency, PSes should oxidize specific molecular targets. We consider the role of subcellular localization, how PS photochemistry and photophysics can change according to its nanoenvironment, and how can all these trigger specific cell death mechanisms. We propose that in order to develop PSes that will cause a breakthrough enhancement in the efficiency of PDT, researchers should first consider tissue and intracellular localization, instead of trying to maximize singlet oxygen quantum yields in in vitro tests. In addition to this, we also indicate many open questions and challenges remaining in this field, hoping to encourage future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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1219 KiB  
Review
Cell Death Pathways and Phthalocyanine as an Efficient Agent for Photodynamic Cancer Therapy
by Ivan Mfouo-Tynga and Heidi Abrahamse
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 10228-10241; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160510228 - 06 May 2015
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 8394
Abstract
The mechanisms of cell death can be predetermined (programmed) or not and categorized into apoptotic, autophagic and necrotic pathways. The process of Hayflick limits completes the execution of death-related mechanisms. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are associated with oxidative stress and subsequent cytodamage by [...] Read more.
The mechanisms of cell death can be predetermined (programmed) or not and categorized into apoptotic, autophagic and necrotic pathways. The process of Hayflick limits completes the execution of death-related mechanisms. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are associated with oxidative stress and subsequent cytodamage by oxidizing and degrading cell components. ROS are also involved in immune responses, where they stabilize and activate both hypoxia-inducible factors and phagocytic effectors. ROS production and presence enhance cytodamage and photodynamic-induced cell death. Photodynamic cancer therapy (PDT) uses non-toxic chemotherapeutic agents, photosensitizer (PS), to initiate a light-dependent and ROS-related cell death. Phthalocyanines (PCs) are third generation and stable PSs with improved photochemical abilities. They are effective inducers of cell death in various neoplastic models. The metallated PCs localize in critical cellular organelles and are better inducers of cell death than other previous generation PSs as they favor mainly apoptotic cell death events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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613 KiB  
Commentary
More Adventures in Photodynamic Therapy
by David Kessel
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(7), 15188-15193; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160715188 - 03 Jul 2015
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4494
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy is a procedure that can provide a selective eradication of neoplastic disease if sufficient drug, light, and oxygen are available. As this description suggests, it involves the photosensitization of malignant tissues to irradiation with photons in the visible range. While not [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy is a procedure that can provide a selective eradication of neoplastic disease if sufficient drug, light, and oxygen are available. As this description suggests, it involves the photosensitization of malignant tissues to irradiation with photons in the visible range. While not suitable for tumors at unknown loci, it can be of use for eradication of cancer at surgical margins and therapy at sites where substantial surgery might otherwise be involved. Drug development has been delayed by several factors including the reluctance of major pharmaceutical firms in the United States to invest in this technology along with some unwise approaches in the past. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
622 KiB  
Commentary
Current Status of Photodynamic Therapy in Digestive Tract Carcinoma in Japan
by Atsushi Nanashima and Takeshi Nagayasu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(2), 3434-3440; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16023434 - 04 Feb 2015
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5040
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective local treatment modality as a cancer-specific laser ablation in malignancy of some organs including digestive tracts or bile duct. In Japan, PDT has been applied at the early period after the first clinical induction in 1980’s. Although [...] Read more.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective local treatment modality as a cancer-specific laser ablation in malignancy of some organs including digestive tracts or bile duct. In Japan, PDT has been applied at the early period after the first clinical induction in 1980’s. Although the useful efficacy was clarified, PDT has not been fully applied because of the phototoxicity of the porfimer sodium. The next generated talaporfin-sodium was used for PDT, in which phototoxicity was reduced and, however, the clinical efficacy for digestive tract malignancy has not yet been clarified. By proceeding the experimental and clinical trials, it is necessary to clarify the evidence of efficacy as a local powerful treatment with the conventional surgery, brachiotherapy and chemotherapy in the future step. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Photodynamic Therapy)
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