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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2022) | Viewed by 7967

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Dr. Verena Tretter

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Department of Anesthesia and General Intensive Care, Clinical Department of Anesthesia, Medizinische Universität Wien, Vienna, Austria
Interests: cell biology of the lung and heart; organ protection; signaling transduction in the lung; experimental anesthesiology
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Dear Colleagues,

Oxygen facilitates an effective production of the cellular energy currency ATP. Cells sense and respond to the partial pressure of oxygen in their environment using a cell-type specific toolkit of oxygen-sensitive ion channels, receptors, second messengers, transcription factors, and other enzymes. Cellular oxygen homeostasis is a prerequisite for proper cellular function and survival, and both under-supply and excess of oxygen induce oxidative stress. Dysregulation induces increased formation of reactive oxygen species, which override the redox buffering capability and modify lipids and proteins. The changes in enzymatic activity can affect all aspects of cellular function, including metabolism, development, and differentiation, cellular secretions, as well as epigenetic mechanisms and gene expression. A good insight into these molecular mechanisms is a prerequisite to understand processes such as aging and diseases such as stroke, ischemia, malignant transformations, and metastasis to finally develop new pharmacological treatments. We cordially invite interested investigators in this field to contribute Original Articles or Reviews to this Special Issue with a focus on molecular mechanisms of cellular responses to different oxygen conditions, whether it be with the help of in vitro models, animal models or in humans, which might provide insight into clinical relevant questions.

Dr. Verena Tretter
Guest Editor

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Keywords

cellular oxygen homeostasis
redox signaling
cellular oxygen sensing
hypoxia
hyperoxia

Related Special Issue

Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis in International Journal of Molecular Sciences (9 articles)

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 159 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis

by Verena Tretter

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(9), 4505; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23094505 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1289

Abstract

Oxidative phosphorylation is an efficient way to generate the cellular energy currency ATP in a cascade of redox reactions, which ultimately terminate in the reduction of molecular oxygen to water [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

Research

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28 pages, 2579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

NF-κB Transcriptional Activity Indispensably Mediates Hypoxia–Reoxygenation Stress-Induced microRNA-210 Expression

by Gurdeep Marwarha, Katrine Hordnes Slagsvold and Morten Andre Høydal

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(7), 6618; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076618 - 01 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1333

Abstract

Ischemia–reperfusion (I-R) injury is a cardinal pathophysiological hallmark of ischemic heart disease (IHD). Despite significant advances in the understanding of what causes I-R injury and hypoxia–reoxygenation (H-R) stress, viable molecular strategies that could be targeted for the treatment of the deleterious biochemical pathways activated during I-R remain elusive. The master hypoxamiR, microRNA-210 (miR-210), is a major determinant of protective cellular adaptation to hypoxia stress but exacerbates apoptotic cell death during cellular reoxygenation. While the hypoxia-induced transcriptional up-regulation of miR-210 is well delineated, the cellular mechanisms and molecular entities that regulate the transcriptional induction of miR-210 during the cellular reoxygenation phase have not been elucidated yet. Herein, in immortalized AC-16 cardiomyocytes, we delineated the indispensable role of the ubiquitously expressed transcription factor, NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) in H-R-induced miR-210 expression during cellular reoxygenation. Using dominant negative and dominant active expression vectors encoding kinases to competitively inhibit NF-κB activation, we elucidated NF-κB activation as a significant mediator of H-R-induced miR-210 expression. Ensuing molecular assays revealed a direct NF-κB-mediated transcriptional up-regulation of miR-210 expression in response to the H-R challenge that is characterized by the NF-κB-mediated reorchestration of the entire repertoire of histone modification changes that are a signatory of a permissive actively transcribed miR-210 promoter. Our study confers a novel insight identifying NF-κB as a potential novel molecular target to combat H-R-elicited miR-210 expression that fosters augmented cardiomyocyte cell death. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis 2.0)

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15 pages, 1333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Involvement of Vasopressin in Tissue Hypoperfusion during Cardiogenic Shock Complicating Acute Myocardial Infarction in Rats

by Philippe Gaudard, Hélène David, Patrice Bideaux, Pierre Sicard, Jean-Paul Cristol, Gilles Guillon, Sylvain Richard, Pascal Colson and Anne Virsolvy

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(2), 1325; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021325 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1469

Abstract

Acute heart failure (AHF) due to acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is likely to involve cardiogenic shock (CS), with neuro-hormonal activation. A relationship between AHF, CS and vasopressin response is suspected. This study aimed to investigate the implication of vasopressin on hemodynamic parameters and tissue perfusion at the early phase of CS complicating AMI. Experiments were performed on male Wistar rats submitted or not to left coronary artery ligation (AMI and Sham). Six groups were studied Sham and AMI treated or not with either a vasopressin antagonist SR-49059 (Sham-SR, AMI-SR) or agonist terlipressin (Sham-TLP, AMI-TLP). Animals were sacrificed one day after surgery (D₁) and after hemodynamic parameters determination. Vascular responses to vasopressin were evaluated, ex vivo, on aorta. AHF was defined by a left ventricular ejection fraction below 40%. CS was defined by AHF plus tissue hypoperfusion evidenced by elevated serum lactate level or low mesenteric oxygen saturation (SmO₂) at D₁. Mortality rates were 40% in AMI, 0% in AMI-SR and 33% in AMI-TLP. Immediately after surgery, a sharp decrease in SmO₂ was observed in all groups. At D₁, SmO₂ recovered in Sham and in SR-treated animals while it remained low in AMI and further decreased in TLP-treated groups. The incidence of CS among AHF animals was 72% in AMI or AMI-TLP while it was reduced to 25% in AMI-SR. Plasma copeptin level was increased by AMI. Maximal contractile response to vasopressin was decreased in AMI (32%) as in TLP- and SR- treated groups regardless of ligation. Increased vasopressin secretion occurring in the early phase of AMI may be responsible of mesenteric hypoperfusion resulting in tissue hypoxia. Treatment with a vasopressin antagonist enhanced mesenteric perfusion and improve survival. This could be an interesting therapeutic strategy to prevent progression to cardiogenic shock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis 2.0)

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14 pages, 1835 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Transcription Factor ChREBP Mediates High Glucose-Evoked Increase in HIF-1α Content in Epithelial Cells of Renal Proximal Tubules

by Aleksandra Owczarek, Katarzyna B. Gieczewska, Robert Jarzyna, Zuzanna Frydzinska and Katarzyna Winiarska

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(24), 13299; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222413299 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

Hyperglycemia/diabetes appears to be accompanied by the state of hypoxia, which especially affects kidneys. The aim of the study was to elucidate the mechanism of high glucose action on HIF-1α expression in renal proximal tubule epithelial cells. The research hypotheses included: (1) the participation of transcription factor ChREBP; and (2) the involvement of the effects resulting from pseudohypoxia, i.e., lowered intracellular NAD+/NADH ratio. The experiments were performed on HK-2 cells and primary cells: D-RPTEC (Diseased Human Renal Proximal Tubule Epithelial Cells—Diabetes Type II) and RPTEC (Renal Proximal Tubule Epithelial Cells). Protein and mRNA contents were determined by Western blot and RT-qPCR, respectively. ChREBP binding to DNA was detected applying chromatin immunoprecipitation, followed by RT-qPCR. Gene knockdown was performed using siRNA. Sirtuin activity and NAD⁺/NADH ratio were measured with commercially available kits. It was found that high glucose in HK-2 cells incubated under normoxic conditions: (1) activated transcription of HIF-1 target genes, elevated HIF-1α and ChREBP content, and increased the efficacy of ChREBP binding to promoter region of HIF1A gene; and (2), although it lowered NAD⁺/NADH ratio, it affected neither sirtuin activity nor HIF-1α acetylation level. The stimulatory effect of high glucose on HIF-1α expression was not observed upon the knockdown of ChREBP encoding gene. Experiments on RPTEC and D-RPTEC cells demonstrated that HIF-1α content in diabetic proximal tubular cells was lower than that in normal ones but remained high glucose-sensitive, and the latter phenomenon was mediated by ChREBP. Thus, it is concluded that the mechanism of high glucose-evoked increase in HIF-1α content in renal proximal tubule endothelial cells involves activation of ChREBP, indirectly capable of HIF1A gene up-regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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13 pages, 3442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Porphylipoprotein Accumulation and Porphylipoprotein Photodynamic Therapy Effects Involving Cancer Cell-Specific Cytotoxicity

by Hiromi Kurokawa, Hiromu Ito and Hirofumi Matsui

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(14), 7306; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147306 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2200

Abstract

In photodynamic therapy (PDT) for neoplasms, photosensitizers selectively accumulate in cancer tissue. Upon excitation with light of an optimal wavelength, the photosensitizer and surrounding molecules generate reactive oxygen species, resulting in cancer cell-specific cytotoxicity. Porphylipoprotein (PLP) has a porphyrin-based nanostructure. The porphyrin moiety of PLP is quenched because of its structure. When PLP is disrupted, the stacked porphyrins are separated into single molecules and act as photosensitizers. Unless PLP is disrupted, there is no photosensitive disorder in normal tissues. PLP can attenuate the photosensitive disorder compared with other photosensitizers and is ideal for use as a photosensitizer. However, the efficacy of PLP has not yet been evaluated. In this study, the mechanism of cancer cell-specific accumulation of PLP and its cytotoxic effect on cholangiocarcinoma cells were evaluated. The effects were investigated on normal and cancer-like mutant cells. The cytotoxicity effect of PLP PDT in cancer cells was significantly stronger than in normal cells. In addition, reactive oxygen species regulated intracellular PLP accumulation. The cytotoxic effects were also investigated using a cholangiocarcinoma cell line. The cytotoxicity of PLP PDT was significantly higher than that of laserphyrin-based PDT, a conventional type of PDT. PLP PDT could also inhibit tumor growth in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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19 pages, 4870 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hypoxia-Induced FAM13A Regulates the Proliferation and Metastasis of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells

by Iwona Ziółkowska-Suchanek, Marta Podralska, Magdalena Żurawek, Joanna Łaczmańska, Katarzyna Iżykowska, Agnieszka Dzikiewicz-Krawczyk and Natalia Rozwadowska

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(9), 4302; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094302 - 21 Apr 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2768

Abstract

Hypoxia in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) affects cancer progression, metastasis and metabolism. We previously showed that FAM13A was induced by hypoxia in NSCLC but the biological function of this gene has not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the role of hypoxia-induced FAM13A in NSCLC progression and metastasis. Lentiviral shRNAs were used for FAM13A gene silencing in NSCLC cell lines (A549, CORL-105). MTS assay, cell tracking VPD540 dye, wound healing assay, invasion assay, BrdU assay and APC Annexin V staining assays were performed to examine cell proliferation ability, migration, invasion and apoptosis rate in NSCLC cells. The results of VPD540 dye and MTS assays showed a significant reduction in cell proliferation after FAM13A knockdown in A549 cells cultured under normal and hypoxia (1% O₂) conditions (p < 0.05), while the effect of FAM13A downregulation on CORL-105 cells was observed after 96 h exposition to hypoxia. Moreover, FAM13A inhibition induced S phase cell cycle arrest in A549 cells under hypoxia conditions. Silencing of FAM13A significantly suppressed migration of A549 and CORL-105 cells in both oxygen conditions, especially after 72 and 96 h (p < 0.001 in normoxia, p < 0.01 after hypoxia). It was showed that FAM13A reduction resulted in disruption of the F-actin cytoskeleton altering A549 cell migration. Cell invasion rates were significantly decreased in A549 FAM13A depleted cells compared to controls (p < 0.05), mostly under hypoxia. FAM13A silencing had no effect on apoptosis induction in NSCLC cells. In the present study, we found that FAM13A silencing has a negative effect on proliferation, migration and invasion activity in NSCLC cells in normal and hypoxic conditions. Our data demonstrated that FAM13A depleted post-hypoxic cells have a decreased cell proliferation ability and metastatic potential, which indicates FAM13A as a potential therapeutic target in lung cancer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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13 pages, 3227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increasing Oxygen Partial Pressures Induce a Distinct Transcriptional Response in Human PBMC: A Pilot Study on the “Normobaric Oxygen Paradox”

by Deborah Fratantonio, Fabio Virgili, Alessandro Zucchi, Kate Lambrechts, Tiziana Latronico, Pierre Lafère, Peter Germonpré and Costantino Balestra

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(1), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010458 - 05 Jan 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4010

Abstract

The term “normobaric oxygen paradox” (NOP), describes the response to the return to normoxia after a hyperoxic event, sensed by tissues as oxygen shortage, and resulting in up-regulation of the Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) transcription factor activity. The molecular characteristics of this response have not been yet fully characterized. Herein, we report the activation time trend of oxygen-sensitive transcription factors in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from healthy subjects after one hour of exposure to mild (MH), high (HH) and very high (VHH) hyperoxia, corresponding to 30%, 100%, 140% O₂, respectively. Our observations confirm that MH is perceived as a hypoxic stress, characterized by the activation of HIF-1α and Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2), but not Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). Conversely, HH is associated to a progressive loss of NOP response and to an increase in oxidative stress leading to NRF2 and NF-kB activation, accompanied by the synthesis of glutathione (GSH). After VHH, HIF-1α activation is totally absent and oxidative stress response, accompanied by NF-κB activation, is prevalent. Intracellular GSH and Matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) plasma levels parallel the transcription factors activation pattern and remain elevated throughout the observation time. In conclusion, our study confirms that, in vivo, the return to normoxia after MH is sensed as a hypoxic trigger characterized by HIF-1α activation. On the contrary, HH and VHH induce a shift toward an oxidative stress response, characterized by NRF2 and NF-κB activation in the first 24 h post exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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Review

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17 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cardiac Hypoxia Tolerance in Fish: From Functional Responses to Cell Signals

by Maria Carmela Cerra, Mariacristina Filice, Alessia Caferro, Rosa Mazza, Alfonsina Gattuso and Sandra Imbrogno

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(2), 1460; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021460 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1997

Abstract

Aquatic animals are increasingly challenged by O₂ fluctuations as a result of global warming, as well as eutrophication processes. Teleost fish show important species-specific adaptability to O₂ deprivation, moving from intolerance to a full tolerance of hypoxia and even anoxia. An example is provided by members of Cyprinidae which includes species that are amongst the most tolerant hypoxia/anoxia teleosts. Living at low water O₂ requires the mandatory preservation of the cardiac function to support the metabolic and hemodynamic requirements of organ and tissues which sustain whole organism performance. A number of orchestrated events, from metabolism to behavior, converge to shape the heart response to the restricted availability of the gas, also limiting the potential damages for cells and tissues. In cyprinids, the heart is extraordinarily able to activate peculiar strategies of functional preservation. Accordingly, by using these teleosts as models of tolerance to low O₂, we will synthesize and discuss literature data to describe the functional changes, and the major molecular events that allow the heart of these fish to sustain adaptability to O₂ deprivation. By crossing the boundaries of basic research and environmental physiology, this information may be of interest also in a translational perspective, and in the context of conservative physiology, in which the output of the research is applicable to environmental management and decision making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis 2.0)

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22 pages, 2110 KiB

Open AccessReview

Role of the Neuroendocrine System of Marine Bivalves in Their Response to Hypoxia

by Elena Kotsyuba and Vyacheslav Dyachuk

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(2), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021202 - 07 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

Mollusks comprise one of the largest phylum of marine invertebrates. With their great diversity of species, various degrees of mobility, and specific behavioral strategies, they haveoccupied marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats and play key roles in many ecosystems. This success is explained by their exceptional ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental stresses, such as hypoxia. Most marine bivalvemollusksare exposed to frequent short-term variations in oxygen levels in their marine or estuarine habitats. This stressfactor has caused them to develop a wide variety of adaptive strategies during their evolution, enabling to mobilize rapidly a set of behavioral, physiological, biochemical, and molecular defenses that re-establishing oxygen homeostasis. The neuroendocrine system and its related signaling systems play crucial roles in the regulation of various physiological and behavioral processes in mollusks and, hence, can affect hypoxiatolerance. Little effort has been made to identify the neurotransmitters and genes involved in oxygen homeostasis regulation, and the molecular basis of the differences in the regulatory mechanisms of hypoxia resistance in hypoxia-tolerant and hypoxia-sensitive bivalve species. Here, we summarize current knowledge about the involvement of the neuroendocrine system in the hypoxia stress response, and the possible contributions of various signaling molecules to this process. We thusprovide a basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxic stress in bivalves, also making comparisons with data from related studies on other species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis 2.0)

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26 pages, 664 KiB

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Understanding Cellular Redox Homeostasis: A Challenge for Precision Medicine

by Verena Tretter, Beatrix Hochreiter, Marie Louise Zach, Katharina Krenn and Klaus Ulrich Klein

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010106 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 4775

Abstract

Living organisms use a large repertoire of anabolic and catabolic reactions to maintain their physiological body functions, many of which include oxidation and reduction of substrates. The scientific field of redox biology tries to understand how redox homeostasis is regulated and maintained and which mechanisms are derailed in diverse pathological developments of diseases, where oxidative or reductive stress is an issue. The term “oxidative stress” is defined as an imbalance between the generation of oxidants and the local antioxidative defense. Key mediators of oxidative stress are reactive species derived from oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur that are signal factors at physiological concentrations but can damage cellular macromolecules when they accumulate. However, therapeutical targeting of oxidative stress in disease has proven more difficult than previously expected. Major reasons for this are the very delicate cellular redox systems that differ in the subcellular compartments with regard to their concentrations and depending on the physiological or pathological status of cells and organelles (i.e., circadian rhythm, cell cycle, metabolic need, disease stadium). As reactive species are used as signaling molecules, non-targeted broad-spectrum antioxidants in many cases will fail their therapeutic aim. Precision medicine is called to remedy the situation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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22 pages, 1640 KiB

Open AccessReview

Redox Homeostasis and Regulation in Pluripotent Stem Cells: Uniqueness or Versatility?

by Julia S. Ivanova and Olga G. Lyublinskaya

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(20), 10946; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222010946 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2332

Abstract

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) hold great potential both in studies on developmental biology and clinical practice. Mitochondrial metabolism that encompasses pathways that generate ATP and produce ROS significantly differs between PSCs and somatic cells. Correspondingly, for quite a long time it was believed that the redox homeostasis in PSCs is also highly specific due to the hypoxic niche of their origin—within the pre-implantation blastocyst. However, recent research showed that redox parameters of cultivated PSCs have much in common with that of their differentiated progeny cells. Moreover, it has been proven that, similar to somatic cells, maintaining the physiological ROS level is critical for the regulation of PSC identity, proliferation, differentiation, and de-differentiation. In this review, we aimed to summarize the studies of redox metabolism and signaling in PSCs to compare the redox profiles of pluripotent and differentiated somatic cells. We collected evidence that PSCs possess metabolic plasticity and are able to adapt to both hypoxia and normoxia, that pluripotency is not strictly associated with anaerobic conditions, and that cellular redox homeostasis is similar in PSCs and many other somatic cells under in vitro conditions that may be explained by the high conservatism of the redox regulation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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15 pages, 1476 KiB

Open AccessReview

Regulation of Oxygen Homeostasis at the Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Site

by Špela Konjar, Miha Pavšič and Marc Veldhoen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(17), 9170; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179170 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5066

Abstract

The unique biology of the intestinal epithelial barrier is linked to a low baseline oxygen pressure (pO₂), characterised by a high rate of metabolites circulating through the intestinal blood and the presence of a steep oxygen gradient across the epithelial surface. These characteristics require tight regulation of oxygen homeostasis, achieved in part by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-dependent signalling. Furthermore, intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) possess metabolic identities that are reflected in changes in mitochondrial function. In recent years, it has become widely accepted that oxygen metabolism is key to homeostasis at the mucosae. In addition, the gut has a vast and diverse microbial population, the microbiota. Microbiome–gut communication represents a dynamic exchange of mediators produced by bacterial and intestinal metabolism. The microbiome contributes to the maintenance of the hypoxic environment, which is critical for nutrient absorption, intestinal barrier function, and innate and/or adaptive immune responses in the gastrointestinal tract. In this review, we focus on oxygen homeostasis at the epithelial barrier site, how it is regulated by hypoxia and the microbiome, and how oxygen homeostasis at the epithelium is regulated in health and disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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14 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mitochondria Turnover and Lysosomal Function in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Metabolism

by Makiko Mochizuki-Kashio, Hiroko Shiozaki, Toshio Suda and Ayako Nakamura-Ishizu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(9), 4627; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094627 - 28 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4392

Abstract

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in a hypoxic microenvironment that enables glycolysis-fueled metabolism and reduces oxidative stress. Nonetheless, metabolic regulation in organelles such as the mitochondria and lysosomes as well as autophagic processes have been implicated as essential for the determination of HSC cell fate. This review encompasses the current understanding of anaerobic metabolism in HSCs as well as the emerging roles of mitochondrial metabolism and lysosomal regulation for hematopoietic homeostasis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular Oxygen Homeostasis)

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