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The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Plant Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2025) | Viewed by 6779

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Victor V. Kusnetsov

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Plant Genome Expression, Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 127276, Russia
Interests: plant hormones; signaling; phytohormones and nuclear–plastid interaction; phytohormones and stress; phytohormonal interaction

Dr. Natalia Kudryakova

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Plant Genome Expression, Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 127276, Russia
Interests: mechanism of phytohormone action; signaling; phytohormones in plant stress resistance; organelle transcription and phytohormones; phytohormone–melatonin crosstalk

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Phytohormones are involved in the regulation of all stages of plant ontogenesis, from seed germination to senescence and death. Primarily due to the methods of molecular genetics, outstanding results have been obtained over the past three decades in the study of the mechanisms of the perception and implementation of hormonal signals. The pathways of biosynthesis and catabolism of "basic" phytohormones and their intracellular localization have been studied, phytohormone receptors and many components of hormonal signaling have been discovered, and our knowledge of the hormonal regulation of gene expression has significantly extended. It becomes obvious that at least several phytohormones are involved in the plant response to any exogenous or endogenous factor, which makes it necessary to study in depth the ways of phytohormone interaction in the regulation of physiological processes. In addition to the nuclear genome, chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes often participate in the implementation of hormonal signals. Therefore, it is extremely important to take into account the interaction between the nucleus and cell organelles to understand the mechanism of action of phytohormones. To date, the hormonal regulation of chloroplast biogenesis has been poorly studied, and the involvement of hormones in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis is also far from being understood. No information is available on the mechanisms of hormonal signal transduction to chloroplasts and mitochondria. Additional challenges arise with the emergence of new very important endogenous regulators of plant growth and development, such as melatonin and the mechanisms of their crosstalk with classical phytohormones. Due to climate change, the task of increasing plant resistance to adverse environmental factors, including the use of phytohormones, is becoming increasingly in demand. Therefore, the problem of studying the role of phytohormones in plant life remains highly relevant. We encourage submissions to this Special Issue to discuss a wide range of issues concerning the hormonal regulation of physiological processes, as well as applications of phytohormones in biotechnology and agriculture, through original experimental papers, opinions, and reviews.

Prof. Dr. Victor V. Kusnetsov
Dr. Natalia Kudryakova
Guest Editors

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Keywords

phytohormones
hormone signaling
hormonal crosstalk
organelle biogenesis
plant stress resistance
genome expression
transcriptional factors
melatonin

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 7597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Auxin Dynamics and Transcriptome–Metabolome Integration Determine Graft Compatibility in Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.)

by Zhe Chen, Tingting Yan, Mingchao Yang, Xianghe Wang, Biao Lai, Guolu He, Farhat Abbas and Fuchu Hu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(9), 4231; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26094231 - 29 Apr 2025

Viewed by 130

Abstract

Grafting is a prevalent horticultural technique that enhances crop yields and stress resilience; nevertheless, compatibility issues frequently constrain its efficacy. This research examined the physiological, hormonal, and transcriptional factors regulating compatibility between the litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) cultivars Feizixiao (FZX) and Ziniangxi (ZNX). The anatomical and growth investigations demonstrated significant disparities between compatible (FZX as scion and ZNX as rootstock) and incompatible (ZNX as scion and FZX as rootstock) grafts, with the latter showing reduced levels of indole acetic acid (IAA). Exogenous 1-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) application markedly improved the graft survival, shoot development, and hormonal synergy, whereas the auxin inhibitor tri-iodobenzoic acid (TIBA) diminished these parameters. The incompatible grafts showed downregulation of auxin transporter genes, including ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, AUXIN1/LIKE AUX1 (AUX/LAX), and PIN-FORMED (PIN) genes, suggesting impaired vascular tissue growth. Metabolomic profiling revealed dynamic interactions between auxin, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid, with NAA-treated grafts exhibiting enhanced levels of stress-responsive metabolites. Transcriptome sequencing identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) linked to auxin signaling (ARF, GH3), seven additional phytohormones, secondary metabolism (terpenoids, anthocyanins, and phenylpropanoids), and ABC transporters. Gene ontology and KEGG analyses highlighted the significance of hormone interactions and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in successful grafting. qRT-PCR validation substantiated the veracity of the transcriptome data, emphasizing the significance of auxin transport and signaling in effective graft development. This study provides an in-depth review of the molecular and physiological factors influencing litchi grafting. These findings provide critical insights for enhancing graft success rates in agricultural operations via targeted hormonal and genetic approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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21 pages, 4470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ethylene Signaling Modulates Dehydrin Expression in Arabidopsis thaliana Under Prolonged Dehydration

by Irina I. Vaseva, Heorhii Balzhyk, Maria Trailova, Tsvetina Nikolova, Zornitsa Katerova, Simona Galabova, Dessislava Todorova, Iskren Sergiev and Valya Vassileva

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(9), 4148; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26094148 - 27 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Dehydrins are stress-inducible proteins with protective functions, characterized by high hydrophilicity, thermostability, and a low degree of secondary structure. They stabilize cellular membranes, preserve macromolecule conformation, and support enzymatic and structural protein functions. Their accumulation in plant tissues under drought is regulated by abscisic acid (ABA)-dependent and ABA-independent pathways. Ethylene plays a key role in stress adaptation, but its relationship with dehydrin accumulation remains unclear. This study investigates how ethylene influences dehydrin expression in Arabidopsis thaliana during prolonged dehydration using transcript profiling and immunodetection in wild-type (Col-0), ethylene-constitutive (ctr1-1), and ethylene-insensitive (ein3eil1) mutants. Comparative analyses showed increased survival of ctr1-1 plants under dehydration stress, likely due to reduced oxidative damage. Analysis of dehydrin-coding genes identified multiple Ethylene Response Factor (ERF) binding sites, flanking the transcription start sites, which suggests a fine-tuned ethylene-dependent regulation. The ability of ethylene signaling to either suppress or stabilize particular dehydrins was demonstrated by RT-qPCR and immunodetection experiments. Under drought stress, ethylene signaling appeared to suppress root-specific dehydrins. A Y-segment-containing protein with approximate molecular weight of 20 kDa showed decreased levels in ctr1-1 and higher accumulation in ein3eil1, indicating that ethylene signaling acts as a negative regulator. These results provide new information on the dual role of ethylene in dehydrin control, highlighting its function as a molecular switch in stress adaptive responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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15 pages, 2677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptome Screening of Hormone-Regulated Genes Related to Fruit Development in Zizyphus jujuba Mill. cv. Goutou Fruits at Different Ripening Stages

by Shuting Luo, Yusen Zhang, Beibei Shi, Rui Wang, Ziyan Zhang, Jiawen Wu, Zhenqing Bai and Guoliang Chen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(8), 3476; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26083476 - 8 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Zizyphus jujuba Mill. cv. Goutou is an edible and medicinal fruit whose development significantly impacts the metabolism and accumulation of nutrients and is regulated by plant hormones. In this study, the metal element and triterpene acid content were investigated and transcriptomic analyses were conducted to evaluate changes in seven ripening stages (Stages I–VII) of Z. jujuba Mill. cv. Goutou. We first analyzed seven metal elements and found that the concentrations of Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), Calcium (Ca), Manganese (Mn), and Cuprum (Cu) were highest at Stage I; in comparison, the concentrations of Zinc (Zn) and Ferrum (Fe) were highest at Stage IV. Additionally, three triterpene acids were detected in the fruits, with the contents of betulinic acid and oleanolic acid being highest at Stage VII and that of ursolic acid being highest at Stage I. Subsequently, through Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) annotations, we identified 40, 18, 9, 6, and 11 differentially expressed genes involved in the auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), ethylene, gibberellic acid (GA), and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathways, respectively. Notably, genes associated with ABA, including ZjABA3, ZjABA4, ZjABA6, ZjABA7, ZjABA10, ZjABA11, ZjABA15-ZjABA19, ZjABA22-ZjABA25, and ZjABA27-ZjABA33, were downregulated from Stage I to Stage VII. Conversely, the expression of ZjACO in the ethylene signaling pathway was the highest at Stage VII. ZjMYC2-1, a JA signaling pathway gene, was significantly induced at Stage I compared to in the other stages. The genes ZjGID-1 and ZjTF-1, related to GA, exhibited the highest expression levels at Stage VI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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17 pages, 3667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A 4D Proteome Investigation of the Potential Mechanisms of SA in Triggering Resistance in Kiwifruit to Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae

by Dong Qu, Fei Yan, Yu Zhang and Lili Huang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(24), 17448; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242417448 - 13 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1222

Abstract

Kiwifruit bacterial cankers caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) are a serious threat to the kiwifruit industry. Salicylic acid (SA) regulates plant defense responses and was previously found to enhance kiwifruit’s resistance to Psa. However, the underlying mechanisms of this process remain unclear. In this study, we used 4D proteomics to investigate how SA enhances kiwifruit’s resistance to Psa and found that both SA treatment and Psa infection induced dramatic changes in the proteomic pattern of kiwifruit. Psa infection triggered the activation of numerous resistance events, including the MAPK cascade, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and hormone signaling transduction. In most cases, the differential expression of a number of genes involved in the SA signaling pathway played a significant role in kiwifruit’s responses to Psa. Moreover, SA treatment upregulated numerous resistance-related proteins, which functioned in defense responses to Psa, including phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, the MAPK cascade, and the upregulation of pathogenesis-related proteins. We also found that SA treatment could facilitate timely defense responses to Psa infection and enhance the activation of defense responses that were downregulated in kiwifruit during infection with Psa. Thus, our research deciphered the potential mechanisms of SA in promoting Psa resistance in kiwifruit and can provide a basis for the use of SA to enhance kiwifruit resistance and effectively control the occurrence of kiwifruit bacterial cankers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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18 pages, 2836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytohormones as Regulators of Mitochondrial Gene Expression in Arabidopsis thaliana

by Ivan A. Bychkov, Elena S. Pojidaeva, Anastasia S. Doroshenko, Vladimir A. Khripach, Natalia V. Kudryakova and Victor V. Kusnetsov

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(23), 16924; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242316924 - 29 Nov 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1802

Abstract

The coordination of activities between nuclei and organelles in plant cells involves information exchange, in which phytohormones may play essential roles. Therefore, the dissection of the mechanisms of hormone-related integration between phytohormones and mitochondria is an important and challenging task. Here, we found that inputs from multiple hormones may cause changes in the transcript accumulation of mitochondrial-encoded genes and nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial (mt) proteins. In particular, treatments with exogenous hormones induced changes in the GUS expression in the reporter line possessing a 5′-deletion fragment of the RPOTmp promoter. These changes corresponded in part to the up- or downregulation of RPOTmp in wild-type plants, which affects the transcription of mt-encoded genes, implying that the promoter fragment of the RPOTmp gene is functionally involved in the responses to IAA (indole-3-acetic acid), ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid), and ABA (abscisic acid). Hormone-dependent modulations in the expression of mt-encoded genes can also be mediated through mitochondrial transcription termination factors 15, 17, and 18 of the mTERF family and genes for tetratricopeptide repeat proteins that are coexpressed with mTERF genes, in addition to SWIB5 encoding a mitochondrial SWI/SNF (nucleosome remodeling) complex B protein. These genes specifically respond to hormone treatment, displaying both negative and positive regulation in a context-dependent manner. According to bioinformatic resources, their promoter region possesses putative cis-acting elements involved in responses to phytohormones. Alternatively, the hormone-related transcriptional activity of these genes may be modulated indirectly, which is especially relevant for brassinosteroids (BS). In general, the results of this study indicate that hormones are essential mediators that are able to cause alterations in the transcript accumulation of mt-related nuclear genes, which, in turn, trigger the expression of mt genes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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Review

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18 pages, 1313 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mode of Action of Brassinosteroids: Seed Germination and Seedling Growth and Development—One Hypothesis

by Bogdan Nikolić, Vladan Jovanović, Branislav Knežević, Zoran Nikolić and Maja Babović-Đorđević

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(6), 2559; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26062559 - 12 Mar 2025

Viewed by 668

Abstract

Brassinosteroids, as unique plant steroid hormones that bear structural similarity to animal steroids, play a crucial role in modulating plant growth and development. These hormones have a positive impact on plant resistance and, under stressful conditions, stimulate photosynthesis and antioxidative systems (enzymatic and non-enzymatic), leading to a reduced impact of environmental cues on plant metabolism and growth. Although these plant hormones have been studied for several decades, most studies analyze the primary site of action of the brassinosteroid phytohormone, with a special emphasis on the activation of various genes (mainly nuclear) through different signaling processes that influence plant metabolism, growth, and development. This review explores another issue, the secondary influence (the so-called mode of action) of brassinosteroids on changes in growth, development, and chemical composition, as well as thermodynamic and energetic changes, mainly during the early growth of corn seedlings. The interactions of brassinosteroids with other phytohormones and physiologically active substances and the influence of these interactions on the mode of action of brassinosteroid phytohormones were also discussed. Seen from a cybernetic point of view, the approach can be labeled as “black box” or “gray box”. “Black box” and “gray box” are terms for cybernetic systems, for which we know the inputs and outputs (in an energetic, biochemical, kinetic, informational, or some other sense), but whose internal structure and/or organization are completely or partially unknown to us. The findings of many researchers have indicated an important role of reactive species, such as oxygen and nitrogen reactive species, in these processes. This ultimately results in the redistribution of matter and energy from source organs to sink organs, with a decrease in Gibbs free energy from the source to sink organs. This quantitative evidence speaks of the exothermic nature and spontaneity of early (corn) seedling development and growth under the influence of 24-epibrassinolide. Based on these findings and a review of the literature on the mode of action of brassinosteroids, a hypothesis was put forward about the secondary effects of BRs on germination and the early growth of plant seedlings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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28 pages, 2354 KiB

Open AccessReview

Multifunctional Role of Cytokinin in Horticultural Crops

by Shahid Hussain, Jingjing Chang, Jing Li, Lei Chen, Sheraz Ahmad, Zhao Song, Baige Zhang and Xiao Chen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(3), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26031037 - 25 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1373

Abstract

Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of phytohormones identified in the early 1960s and are mainly responsible for stimulating cell division. Following the discovery, research to help understand the pluralistic roles of CKs in plant growth and stress biology increased. With their fascinating ability, CKs serve as an important element in regulating the defense–growth trade-off. Herein, we demonstrate how the CK fine-tuning the organogenesis of different parts of horticultural plants is discussed. CK’s role in tailoring reproductive biology (flowering, sex differentiation, fruit set, and fruit attributes) has been presented. An extensive explanation of the CK-mediated response of horticultural crops to abiotic (temperature, drought, and salinity) and biotic stresses (fungal, bacterial, and nematodes) is provided. Finally, we posit the unexplored roles of CKs and highlight the research gaps worth addressing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Cytokinins and Other Phytohormones in Plant Life)

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