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Horticulturae
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Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants
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Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants

A special issue of Horticulturae (ISSN 2311-7524). This special issue belongs to the section "Protected Culture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2025 | Viewed by 3453

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Antonios Chrysargyris

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol 3036, Cyprus
Interests: aromatic plants and vegetable cultivation; development of strategies for plant nutrition and response to abiotic stress; soil-less culture; substrates and hydroponics; postharvest storage and processing of medicinal and aromatic plants; essential oil analysis and biocidal activity; evaluation of natural products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Silvana Nicola

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural, Forest, and Food Sciences—DISAFA, Horticultural Sciences—INHORTOSANITAS, Vegetable Crops and Medicinal and Aromatic Plants—VEGMAP, University of Torino, 10095 Grugliasco, Italy
Interests: horticultural sciences; advanced production systems; protected cultivations; urban horticulture; postharvest of fresh produce
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Sasan Aliniaeifard
*
Website
Guest Editor
1. Photosynthesis Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agricultural Technology (Aburaihan), University of Tehran, Tehran 14395-547, Iran
2. Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (CEAC), Faculty of Agricultural Technology (Aburaihan), College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran 14395-547, Iran
Interests: photosynthesis; vertical farming; gas exchanges; photobiology; controlled environment agriculture; greenhouse crop physiology; LED; water use efficiency; light use efficiency
* We dedicate the memory of the editor, Sasan Aliniaeifard, who passed away during this special issue period.

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In Memory of Dr. Sasan Aliniaeifard (1982–2025) 

With profound sorrow, we dedicate this Special Issue to the memory of Dr. Sasan Aliniaeifard, a distinguished scientist whose untimely passing in a tragic car accident, together with his wife and son, has left an irreplaceable void in the scientific community.

Dr. Aliniaeifard was a leading expert in greenhouse cultivation, controlled vertical farming, and crop physiology. His groundbreaking research significantly advanced our understanding of plant physiology under controlled environments, offering innovative solutions to improve sustainable agricultural practices.

Beyond his remarkable scientific contributions, Sasan was a generous mentor, a dedicated collaborator, and an inspiring scholar whose passion for discovery and unwavering commitment to excellence were evident in every aspect of his work. His insights and innovations will continue to shape the field for years to come.

As we honor his legacy, we extend our deepest condolences to his family, friends, and colleagues. His absence is deeply felt, but his influence endures through the knowledge he shared and the lives he touched.

This Special Issue in remembrance of a brilliant scientist and a remarkable human being is the least we can do to honor his memory.

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is an advanced and sustainable method of growing plants in a controlled and protected environment. By regulating factors such as temperature, humidity, light, carbon dioxide, air movement, and nutrients, CEA creates optimal conditions for plant growth, leading to higher yields, better quality, and reduced use of resources.

CEA manages growth conditions in order to optimize the concentration of high-value phytochemicals, maximize yields, and minimize microbial and insect contamination. The technology applied removes the geographical constraints for production by enabling environmental (temperature, photoperiod, light quality, and CO2) and rhizospheric (rooting media, nutrient composition, and irrigation) factors to be managed and replicated anywhere in the world. CEA has the potential to increase availability, improve quality, and reduce the over-harvesting pressures of vegetables with the use of ornamental and aromatic plants supplying the commercial market, but further research is needed to increase the knowledge about and optimize CEA conditions to improve the growth, production, and chemistry of many vegetable, ornamental, and aromatic plant species.

Therefore, this Special Issue aims to gather knowledge on how to enhance the efficiency and quality of vegetables, ornamental, and aromatic plants through plant protected cultivation (CEA). Investigations or reviews on soilless culture systems, bioreactors, hydroponics, aeroponics, fogponics, and any other advanced and controlled system are welcome, unraveling the influences of light, nutrient, water, relative humidity, air or root temperature, CO2, eustress, and elicitors on the intrinsic characteristics of vegetables, ornamental, and aromatic plants.

Dr. Antonios Chrysargyris
Prof. Dr. Silvana Nicola
Dr. Sasan Aliniaeifard
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Horticulturae is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • protected cultivation
  • greenhouse
  • vegetables
  • ornamental plants
  • medicinal and aromatic plants
  • specialty crops
  • soilless cultures
  • hydroponics
  • bioactive compounds
  • biological properties
  • LED
  • vertical farming

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

29 pages, 4517 KiB  
Article
Bioengineered Indoor Farming Approaches: LED Light Spectra and Biostimulants for Enhancing Vindoline and Catharanthine Production in Catharanthus roseus
by Alessandro Quadri, Bianca Sambuco, Mattia Trenta, Patrizia Tassinari, Daniele Torreggiani, Laura Mercolini, Michele Protti, Alessandra Zambonelli, Federico Puliga and Alberto Barbaresi
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070828 - 12 Jul 2025
Viewed by 366
Abstract
Light quality and biostimulants regulate alkaloid biosynthesis and promote plant growth, but their combined effects on vindoline (VDL) and catharanthine (CAT) production in Catharanthus roseus remain underexplored. This study investigated the impact of different LED spectra and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-based biostimulant (BS) [...] Read more.
Light quality and biostimulants regulate alkaloid biosynthesis and promote plant growth, but their combined effects on vindoline (VDL) and catharanthine (CAT) production in Catharanthus roseus remain underexplored. This study investigated the impact of different LED spectra and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-based biostimulant (BS) on VDL and CAT production in indoor-grown C. roseus. After a 60-day pretreatment under white LEDs, plants were exposed to eight treatments: white (W, control), red (R), blue (B), and red-blue (RB) light, and their combinations with BS. Samples were collected before treatments (T0) and 92 days after pretreatment (T1). No mycorrhizal development was observed. VDL was detected in both roots and leaves, with higher levels in roots. R produced significantly higher mean concentrations of both VDL and CAT than W. BS significantly increased mean concentrations and total yields of both alkaloids than the untreated condition. The combination of R and BS produced the highest mean concentrations and total yields of VDL and CAT. In particular, it resulted in a significantly higher mean concentration and total yield of VDL compared to sole W. Total yields increased from T0 to T1, primarily due to a substantial rise in root yield. In conclusion, combining R and BS proved to be the most effective strategy to enhance VDL and CAT production by maximizing their total yields, which also increased over time due to greater root contribution. This underscores the importance of combining targeted treatments with harvesting at specific stages to optimize alkaloid production under controlled conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants)
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23 pages, 2820 KiB  
Article
Optimized Spectral and Spatial Design of High-Uniformity and Energy-Efficient LED Lighting for Italian Lettuce Cultivation in Miniature Plant Factories
by Zihan Wang, Haitong Huang, Mingming Shi, Yuheng Xiong, Jiang Wang, Yilin Wang and Jun Zou
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070779 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 337
Abstract
Optimizing artificial lighting in controlled-environment agriculture is crucial for enhancing crop productivity and resource efficiency. This study presents a spectral–spatial co-optimization strategy for LED lighting tailored to the physiological needs of Italian lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. italica). A miniature plant factory [...] Read more.
Optimizing artificial lighting in controlled-environment agriculture is crucial for enhancing crop productivity and resource efficiency. This study presents a spectral–spatial co-optimization strategy for LED lighting tailored to the physiological needs of Italian lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. italica). A miniature plant factory system was developed with dimensions of 400 mm × 400 mm × 500 mm (L × W × H). Seven customized spectral treatments were created using 2835-packaged LEDs, incorporating various combinations of blue and violet LED chips with precisely controlled concentrations of red phosphor. The spectral configurations were aligned with the measured absorption peaks of Italian lettuce (450–470 nm and 640–670 nm), achieving a spectral mixing uniformity exceeding 99%, while the spatial light intensity uniformity surpassed 90%. To address spatial light heterogeneity, a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was employed to determine the optimal LED arrangement, which increased the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) uniformity from 83% to 93%. The system operates with a fixture-level power consumption of only 75 W. Experimental evaluations across seven treatment groups demonstrated that the E-spectrum group—comprising two violet chips, one blue chip, and 0.21 g of red phosphor—achieved the highest agronomic performance. Compared to the A-spectrum group (three blue chips and 0.19 g of red phosphor), the E-spectrum group resulted in a 25% increase in fresh weight (90.0 g vs. 72.0 g), a 30% reduction in SPAD value (indicative of improved light-use efficiency), and compared with Group A, Group E exhibited significant improvements in plant morphological parameters, including a 7.05% increase in plant height (15.63 cm vs. 14.60 cm), a 25.64% increase in leaf width (6.37 cm vs. 5.07 cm), and a 6.35% increase in leaf length (10.22 cm vs. 9.61 cm). Furthermore, energy consumption was reduced from 9.2 kWh (Group A) to 7.3 kWh (Group E). These results demonstrate that integrating spectral customization with algorithmically optimized spatial distribution is an effective and scalable approach for enhancing both crop yield and energy efficiency in vertical farming systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants)
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16 pages, 1351 KiB  
Article
Evaluating a Natural-Based Solution for Its Stimulation in Cucumis sativus Plants and Fruits
by Antonios Chrysargyris, Panayiota Xylia, Menelaos Stavrinides and Nikolaos Tzortzakis
Horticulturae 2025, 11(5), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11050499 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 651
Abstract
The current study researched the biostimulant impacts of a natural-based solution (NBS) that contained eucalyptus and rosemary essential oils on cucumber crops. The effects of NBS (one time-NBS1; two times-NBS2) application on plant development and physiological attributes (chlorophylls, stomatal conductance), total phenolics, non-enzymatic [...] Read more.
The current study researched the biostimulant impacts of a natural-based solution (NBS) that contained eucalyptus and rosemary essential oils on cucumber crops. The effects of NBS (one time-NBS1; two times-NBS2) application on plant development and physiological attributes (chlorophylls, stomatal conductance), total phenolics, non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidant activities, leaf minerals content, cucumber quality attributes at harvest and after one-week storage were assessed through experiments. NBS1 spraying was less effective than NBS2 application because it resulted in a decrease in mineral accumulation (like reduced nitrogen) and other physiological characteristics (like chlorophylls). The plants’ enhanced oxidative stress and activation of several enzymatic antioxidant systems were reflected in the use of a commercial solution (CS) based on amino acids and biostimulants, which also boosted stomatal conductance, reduced nitrogen, calcium, and magnesium accumulation, and antioxidant capacity. No differences were found in plant height, number of leaves, plant biomass, chlorophyll fluorescence, total phenols, and various fruit quality attributes, including firmness, fresh weight, respiration rates, total soluble solids, ascorbic acid, decay, and marketability among the treatments. In fact, the effects of both CS and NBS treatment on cucumber plants and fruits were less pronounced, suggesting that more than two applications should be explored in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants)
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18 pages, 2032 KiB  
Article
Combined Spirulina and Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Enhance Drought Tolerance in Lettuce, with Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Excelling Under Severe Stress
by Seyedeh Batool Hassani, Mojgan Latifi, Zahra Akbar-Tajari, Anahita Ahangir, Fereshteh Jafari, Nazim S. Gruda and Maryam Seifikalhor
Horticulturae 2025, 11(3), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030278 - 5 Mar 2025
Viewed by 963
Abstract
Drought stress hinders plant growth by reducing water availability, leading to stunted plants growth, lower photosynthesis rates, and decreased yields. This research explored the impact of the combination of Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria on the growth and resilience of lettuce plants under three [...] Read more.
Drought stress hinders plant growth by reducing water availability, leading to stunted plants growth, lower photosynthesis rates, and decreased yields. This research explored the impact of the combination of Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria on the growth and resilience of lettuce plants under three drought levels (80%, 60%, and 40%). Overall, drought reduced germination percentages, but at 40% level, Spirulina significantly improved germination rates. At higher drought levels, Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria positively influenced germination compared to the control, with SRB showing the most pronounced effect. Root growth increased significantly under 60% drought, though no root elongation under different stress levels was impacted. Leaf area decreased with increasing drought, but sulfate-reducing bacteria significantly enhanced it, especially at 80% drought. Control plants’ relative water content decreased with increasing drought severity. However, the combination of Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria at 60% drought mitigated this effect. Notably, under 60% and 80% drought, hydrogen peroxide levels increased, though the Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria combined consistently elevated hydrogen peroxide levels in both 60% and 80% conditions. Superoxide dismutase activity rose by 80% in non-treated plants, while Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria individually enhanced superoxide dismutase activity across moderate and high drought. Catalase activity decreased at 80% drought in control plants; however, an increase was observed with sulfate-reducing bacteria in 80% stress level. The Fv/Fm ratio and PiABS declined as drought intensified, but sulfate-reducing bacteria improved these parameters at both 60% and 80% stress levels. ABS/RC and ET0/RC ratios responded positively to sulfate-reducing bacteria under severe drought. These findings suggest that while Spirulina and sulfate-reducing bacteria enhance drought tolerance in lettuce, sulfate-reducing bacteria are especially effective under higher drought stress conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) for Vegetables, Ornamental and Aromatic Plants)
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