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Forests
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Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs
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Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2025) | Viewed by 8712

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Anže Japelj

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna Pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: environmental valuation; ecosystem service mapping; governance models for natural resources; management of stakeholders
Dr. Silvija Krajter Ostoić

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Croatian Forest Research Institute, Cvjetno Naselje 41, 10450 Jastrebarsko, Croatia
Interests: perceptions; preferences; attitudes and behaviour of stakeholders; participatory approaches; cultural ecosystem services; urban forest and green space policy and governance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Nature-based Solutions (NbS), as conceptualized by IUCN, are actions related to effective protection, sustainable management, and restoration efforts to recover degraded ecosystems, which in turn has benefits on human well-being and the status of biodiversity. Thus, NbS are suitable means to address various societal challenges, including climate change, biodiversity losses, decreases in productivity, water security, risks of pests and diseases, as well as challenges regarding non-sustainable materials.

NbS are closely related to ecosystem services (ES) as these solutions foster the natural capacity of ecosystems to provide ES and thus leverage and enhance ES. As such, NbS rely on natural processes and ES to address challenges rather than relying solely on artificial, engineered solutions. Forests, being one of the most preserved and relatively abundant natural ecosystems, have great potential to provide NbS by, for example, sequestering carbon and mitigating climate change, regulating microclimates, decreasing the costs of cooling/heating, providing spaces for outdoor recreation and contributing to public health, providing wood as a building material and source of energy, providing soil cover and decreasing erosion rates, etc.

However, there are several challenges related to the implementation of NbS in forestry, such as the tendency to prioritize economic outcomes as opposed to engineered solutions, the lack of awareness and understanding of the concept of NbS and the benefits they bring, policy and regulatory barriers, the professional expertise needed for implementing NbS, information/data gaps regarding the ecological effectiveness of NbS, issues related to scale and replicability, etc.

We welcome papers that investigate those NbS-related challenges either (1) in the context of the ecological restoration, conservation, or enhancement of forests’ capacity to provide ES or (2) as studies of stakeholders’ (e.g., forest owners and decision makers) perceptions, attitudes, positions towards adapting/altering forest management to enhance the supply of ES, or even (3) the preferences of the general public and businesses regarding implementing different NBS-related strategies, as they are commonly the ones that benefit from the increased provision of forest ES.

Dr. Anže Japelj
Dr. Silvija Krajter Ostoić
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • nature-based solutions
  • forest ecosystem services
  • forest owners
  • trade-offs among ES
  • policy uptake of NBS
  • sustainable management
  • environmental equality
  • socio-ecological systems

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 2607 KiB  
Article
The Offset of the Ecological Benefits of Decreasing Forest Disturbance Severity in Europe Caused by Climate Change
by Wei Zheng, Yundi Zhang and Xiuzhi Chen
Forests 2025, 16(5), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050852 - 20 May 2025
Abstract
Forest ecosystems critically regulate land surface temperature (LST) from local to regional scales. Over the last three decades (1986–2016), increasingly frequent and severe disturbances have substantially altered the European forest canopy structure and carbon storage. However, the biophysical interactions between forest disturbance severity [...] Read more.
Forest ecosystems critically regulate land surface temperature (LST) from local to regional scales. Over the last three decades (1986–2016), increasingly frequent and severe disturbances have substantially altered the European forest canopy structure and carbon storage. However, the biophysical interactions between forest disturbance severity (FDS) and LST, particularly their spatiotemporal dynamics, remain insufficiently quantified at regional-to-continental scales. This study integrated multi-source, high-resolution remote sensing data spanning 1986–2016 to systematically investigate European FDS and its biophysical control over LST. We find significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity in FDS, which decreased markedly from 5.92 ± 4.6 in 1986 to 0.35 ± 2.36 in 2016, stabilizing after a sharp decline pre-2000. Concurrently, the mean regional LST exhibited significant warming trends, increasing from −27.04 ± 10.15 K to 16.47 ± 10.67 K, and declining FDS indirectly contributed up to 65% of this temperature rise. Mechanistically, the reduced FDS enhanced the secondary forest leaf area index (LAI), decreasing surface albedo and increasing net radiation absorption, thereby inducing positive radiative feedback that drives surface warming. Our findings demonstrate that the carbon sequestration benefits accrued during forest recovery can be partially offset by associated biophysical warming effects. This evidence is crucial for optimizing European forest management strategies to balance carbon sink enhancement and climate regulation functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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23 pages, 4503 KiB  
Article
Monitoring and Assessing Ecological Environmental Quality in Qianping Reservoir, Central China: A Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI) Approach
by Enkai Xu, Guohang Zhang, Hua Wang, Mei Yang, Hao Tian, Ming Zhao, Nalin Dong, Congshi Li, Yongge Hu, Guohang Tian, Yakai Lei, Qian Chen and Dianwei Wei
Forests 2025, 16(5), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050831 - 16 May 2025
Viewed by 84
Abstract
The ecological impacts of dam and reservoir construction necessitate systematic environmental quality evaluation (EEQ) to reconcile ecological protection with sustainable development. To address this need, we integrated the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI)—a comprehensive metric synthesizing greenness, humidity, heat, and dryness—with a Land [...] Read more.
The ecological impacts of dam and reservoir construction necessitate systematic environmental quality evaluation (EEQ) to reconcile ecological protection with sustainable development. To address this need, we integrated the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI)—a comprehensive metric synthesizing greenness, humidity, heat, and dryness—with a Land Use Change Ecological Response (LUCER) model to quantify the long-term EEQ dynamics in reservoir-affected regions. This study utilized Landsat and Sentinel-2 remote sensing imagery with a 10 m resolution from the years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020 to compute the RSEI for the Qianping Reservoir area in Henan Province, investigating the spatiotemporal variations in EEQ. Key findings reveal: (1) Temporal trend: EEQ showed fluctuating improvement, with RSEI projected to rise gradually until 2030. (2) Spatial pattern: A lower ecological quality in central reservoir zones contrasts with higher quality in surrounding mountainous areas. (3) Mechanism: The Land Use Change Ecological Response (LUCER) model reveals that the conversion of cultivated land to forestland and grassland drives significant EEQ improvements, counterbalancing the negative impacts of hydrological fragmentation caused by reservoir construction and urbanization. This study advances RSEI applications in reservoir ecology by establishing a coupled monitoring–prediction framework, providing actionable insights for dam-related ecological restoration and governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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20 pages, 6534 KiB  
Article
Prediction and Trade-Off Analysis of Forest Ecological Service in Hunan Province on Explainable Deep Learning
by Weisi Li, Wenju Jing, Yuxin Tian and Nan Deng
Forests 2025, 16(4), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040604 - 30 Mar 2025
Viewed by 319
Abstract
Ecosystem services play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, providing essential functions. This study examines the trade-offs and synergies among five key ecosystem services in ecological forests across different regions of Hunan Province, China. Various machine learning models are compared to predict [...] Read more.
Ecosystem services play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, providing essential functions. This study examines the trade-offs and synergies among five key ecosystem services in ecological forests across different regions of Hunan Province, China. Various machine learning models are compared to predict ecosystem service value (ESV) levels, with the most effective predictive model identified. The SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) analysis is employed to identify key environmental and management factors influencing ecosystem services. Our findings reveal significant regional variations in ecosystem services, with the eastern and western regions showing superior soil conservation and forest nutrient retention. In contrast, the southern and western regions, particularly karst areas, display fewer trade-offs between ecosystem services, likely due to the effectiveness of ecological policies. SHAP analysis further reveals that factors such as precipitation during the warmest quarter, central government compensation funds, and timber harvesting volume strongly influence regional ESV. This study provides valuable insights for improving ecosystem service management and policy-making in rapidly developing regions, underscoring the importance of ecological protection strategies for sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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20 pages, 20226 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Bamboo on Rainfall-Triggered Landslide Distribution at the Regional Scale: A Case Study from SE China
by Zizheng Guo, Zhanxu Guo, Chunchun Wen, Gang Xu, Yuhua Zhang, Hao Zhang, Haiyan Qin, Yuzhi Zhang and Jun He
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122223 - 17 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1151
Abstract
It is widely accepted that land use and land cover (LULC) is an important conditioning factor for landslide occurrence, especially when considering the role of tree roots in stabilizing slopes and consolidating the soil. However, it is still difficult to assess the impacts [...] Read more.
It is widely accepted that land use and land cover (LULC) is an important conditioning factor for landslide occurrence, especially when considering the role of tree roots in stabilizing slopes and consolidating the soil. However, it is still difficult to assess the impacts of a specific LULC type on landslide distribution. The objective of the present study is to reveal the relationship between bamboo and landslide distribution at the regional scale. We aim to answer the following question: do the areas covered by bamboo have a higher susceptibility to landslides? Wenzhou City in SE China was taken as the study area, and a landslide inventory containing 1725 shallow landslides was constructed. The generalized additive model (GAM) was employed to assess the significance of LULC and nine additional factors, all of which were generated using the GIS platform. The frequency ratio (FR) method was used to analyze and compare the landslide density in each LULC category. Machine learning models were applied to perform landslide susceptibility mapping of the region. The results show that in the Wenzhou region, LULC is the second most important factor for landslide occurrences after the slope factor, whereas bamboo has a relatively higher FR value than most other LULC categories. The accuracies of the landslide susceptibility maps obtained from the random forest and XGBoost models were 79.6% and 85.3%, respectively. Moreover, 23.8% and 25.5% of the bamboos were distributed in very-high- and high-susceptibility-level areas. The incidents and density of landslides in bamboo areas were significantly higher than those with debris flow and rock collapses, indicating a promotional effect of bamboo on slope failure in the study area. This work will improve our understanding regarding the role of geological and ecological conditions that affect slope stability, which may provide useful guidance for land use planning and landslide risk assessment and mitigation at the regional scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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17 pages, 1943 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Impacts of Nature-Based Solutions on Ecosystem Services: A Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystems Nexus Approach in the Nima River Sub-Basin (Colombia)
by Juan Diego Restrepo, Giorgia Bottaro, Linda Barci, Lucila Marcela Beltrán, Martín Londoño-Behaine and Mauro Masiero
Forests 2024, 15(11), 1852; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111852 - 23 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2077
Abstract
Forest ecosystem services are critical for maintaining ecological balance and supporting human well-being from different perspectives. However, rapid land use changes driven by agricultural expansion, urbanization, and industrial activities have significantly altered forest ecosystems, degrading the services they provide. We here conduct an [...] Read more.
Forest ecosystem services are critical for maintaining ecological balance and supporting human well-being from different perspectives. However, rapid land use changes driven by agricultural expansion, urbanization, and industrial activities have significantly altered forest ecosystems, degrading the services they provide. We here conduct an ecosystem service assessment through biophysical and economic estimates for a multipurpose Andean water sub-basin in western Colombia. We compare a business as usual (BAU) with a forest nature-based solution (NbS) scenario focused on forest landscape restoration. The research employed participatory methods for the NbS selection and economic valuation techniques to evaluate water flow regulation, water provisioning, water purification, and food provisioning services. Results show that the NbS scenario yielded a net positive economic impact across most evaluated ecosystem services, with notable trade-offs. Specifically, the NbS scenario increased water retention by 2.9% compared to BAU. Water flow regulation demonstrated the most substantial economic benefit, increasing by EUR 11.39 million/year in the NbS scenario. On the other hand, the food provisioning service presented a reduction of EUR 3.2 million/year in the NbS scenario. These findings highlight the potential of forest-based NbS to address the Water–Energy–Food–Ecosystem (WEFE) nexus challenges. The study’s outcomes provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners, supporting the development of Payment for Ecosystem Services schemes and integrating ecosystem service valuation into land use planning and decision-making processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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20 pages, 2013 KiB  
Article
Thirty Years of Research on Ecosystem Services: The Socio-Economic Role of Forest Visits and Foraging in Enhancing Human Well-Being
by Marcel Riedl, Martin Němec and Vilém Jarský
Forests 2024, 15(11), 1845; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111845 - 22 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1114
Abstract
This paper examines the socio-economic significance of forest visits and the collection of forest berries and mushrooms (FBMs) in the Czech Republic, emphasising their role in enhancing human well-being and contributing to regional economies. Over a 30-year period, data were collected on the [...] Read more.
This paper examines the socio-economic significance of forest visits and the collection of forest berries and mushrooms (FBMs) in the Czech Republic, emphasising their role in enhancing human well-being and contributing to regional economies. Over a 30-year period, data were collected on the quantities and economic values of FBMs, alongside the intensity of forest visits by the Czech population. This study incorporates a detailed analysis of time series data on FBM collection, exploring trends and fluctuations in the harvested quantities and their economic value. A Lorenz curve analysis reveals significant disparities in the distribution of economic benefits, with a small segment of the population accounting for the majority of the FBM-derived value. Additionally, the research investigates the impact of forest visitation on well-being at the regional level, highlighting the relationship between forest access, visitation intensity, and public health benefits. This study also examines visitors’ expectations, motivations, and perceptions regarding an ideal forest for visitation, providing recommendations for effective marketing strategies. Furthermore, the study explores the contribution of FBMs to net income across different regions, demonstrating substantial regional variation in their economic importance. Notably, the analysis shows that the value of FBMs represents approximately 37% of the net income generated by traditional forestry activities, underscoring its significant economic potential. The findings emphasise the potential of territorial marketing strategies to enhance well-being, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions, and advocate for sustainable forest management practices to protect these valuable resources and ensure equitable access to the benefits provided by forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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23 pages, 3150 KiB  
Article
Whether the Natural Forest Logging Ban Promotes the Improvement and Realization of the Ecosystem Service Value in Northeast China: A Regression Discontinuity Design
by Xianqiao Huang, Jingye Li, Bo Cao, Yue Ren and Yukun Cao
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071203 - 11 Jul 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1529
Abstract
To protect forest land from loss and mitigate the global climate crisis, China has proposed a stringent natural forest protection plan, known as China’s natural forest logging ban (NFLB). This policy aims to halt the over-exploitation of natural forests, restore forest ecosystem functions, [...] Read more.
To protect forest land from loss and mitigate the global climate crisis, China has proposed a stringent natural forest protection plan, known as China’s natural forest logging ban (NFLB). This policy aims to halt the over-exploitation of natural forests, restore forest ecosystem functions, and promote regional green economic development. This study uses a regression discontinuity design (RDD) model to quantitatively and comprehensively assess the effectiveness of this policy in the key state-owned forest regions in Northeast China. Additionally, it analyzes the heterogeneity and structural characteristics of the policy’s effects on the internal composition of ecological and economic systems. The empirical results are as follows: (1) Ecological and economic impacts: The policy has successfully achieved its ecological objectives by significantly enhancing the quality and value of ecosystem services. However, it has also had a notable adverse impact on economic development, particularly in the timber supply sector, reducing the conversion efficiency of ecosystem service values into economic benefits. (2) Structural analysis: The logging ban effectively promoted the value of various ecosystem services, particularly enhancing regulatory and support functions, with a LATE estimate of approximately 8.47 units. The implementation of the policy caused a negative growth in the output value of supply-oriented ecological products, and the significance level was lower than 0.1. Conversely, the LATE estimates for different types of GDP indicate a negative growth in supply-type GDP due to the policy, with p < 0.1. (3) Heterogeneity: On the one hand, a simplistic and singular approach to logging prohibition may constrain the efficiency of enhancing ecosystem service values. On the other hand, although the policy disrupted the majority of traditional forest enterprise operations, business models focusing on quality and technology improvements were able to mitigate this impact. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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24 pages, 2889 KiB  
Article
Forest Worker Households in the NFPP: Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods through Capital and Transformation
by Bo Yu, Bo Cao and Hongge Zhu
Forests 2024, 15(6), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15060936 - 28 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1156
Abstract
The persistent conflict between strict conservation and community welfare highlights the growing need to address sustainable livelihoods in forest protection programs. The Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) is a comprehensive forest protection program spearheaded by the Chinese government. It is designed to facilitate [...] Read more.
The persistent conflict between strict conservation and community welfare highlights the growing need to address sustainable livelihoods in forest protection programs. The Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) is a comprehensive forest protection program spearheaded by the Chinese government. It is designed to facilitate the conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems through a range of interventions, including logging ban, management, tending, and afforestation efforts. Drawing upon longitudinal micro-level household survey data spanning five consecutive years from 2017 to 2021, this research quantifies the sustainable livelihood levels of frontline participants in the NFPP by examining two dimensions: livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. Additionally, it investigates the internal differentiation phenomenon within this cohort. The findings suggest that forest worker households engaged in tasks related to forest management, tending, and afforestation are the frontline participants in the NFPP, in contrast to management, technical, and service personnel. Moreover, these forest worker households exhibit a pattern characterized by a higher livelihood capital stock but a lower livelihood transformation capacity compared to non-forest worker households. Furthermore, within forest worker households, there is a significant group differentiation phenomenon, resulting in inter-group differentials in the sustainable livelihood levels based on geographical and seniority stratification criteria. The developers of the global forest protection program should prioritize addressing the sustainable livelihood issues of frontline participants in the program, especially the real problem of mismatches between livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. This can be achieved through designing income incentives, stimulating consumption, and other means to enhance the relatively disadvantaged position of frontline participants while balancing the coordination and fairness of the protection program based on the aspects of both protection and development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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Review

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13 pages, 2975 KiB  
Review
Planting Trees as a Nature-Based Solution to Mitigate Climate Change: Opportunities, Limits, and Trade-Offs
by Filippo Bussotti and Martina Pollastrini
Forests 2025, 16(5), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050810 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 233
Abstract
Trees and forests are nature-based solutions of strategic importance for climate change mitigation. Policy and popular media are focused on the number of trees to plant, but that cannot be a definitive solution. A growing number of scientific papers address the problems concerning [...] Read more.
Trees and forests are nature-based solutions of strategic importance for climate change mitigation. Policy and popular media are focused on the number of trees to plant, but that cannot be a definitive solution. A growing number of scientific papers address the problems concerning tree plantations and forest restoration for climatic purposes. In this review, we analyze ecological limitations and trade-offs to be considered for the realization and management of these interventions. Terrestrial sinks (forests and other terrestrial natural ecosystems) can absorb only a fraction of the carbon emitted, and the establishment of new effective forests is constrained by ecological limitations. Moreover, the stimulation of tree growth due to carbon fertilization is offset by the harshening of ecological conditions due to climate change (higher temperatures beyond the optimum for photosynthesis, increasing drought, and nutritional imbalances). The increase in frequency and severity of disturbances can turn forests from sinks to sources of carbon. Finally, physiological mechanisms connected to albedo and the emission of organic volatile compounds (VOCs) reduce the efficacy of climate cooling. Although such constraints exist, the establishment of new plantations and the restoration of existing forests are still necessary but are just one of the actions to fight climate change and must not be seen as an alternative to reducing carbon emissions. Considering limitations and trade-offs in the models to estimate tree growth and carbon storage will allow us to produce more realistic plans for climate mitigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)
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