Growth and Stand Dynamics of Unmanaged and Managed Forests Under Global Change

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecology and Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2025 | Viewed by 6589

Special Issue Editor


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Guest Editor
Department of Ecology and Silviculture, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Aleja Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland
Interests: climate-smart forestry; adaptive silviculture; regeneration methods; natural and artificial regeneration; intermediate treatments; silvicultural prescription; mixed-forest performance; conversion methods; mixed-species forest growth models; inter- and intra-specific relationships; old-growth forests
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, we are witnessing many global environmental changes caused by, among other things, anthropopressure, i.e., climate change, which fundamentally impacts forest ecosystems, both those subject to forest management and those excluded from it. Crucially, this impacts the fulfilment of all forest functions. In managed stands, we can take corrective or, better yet, preventive actions, which can increase the stability and durability of such stands. In forests excluded from management, we cannot carry out such actions. However, such forests are a source of invaluable information on the effects of these changes on forests. Through insightful observations, we can draw conclusions about interventions in managed forests and consolidate their readiness to fulfil versatile functions (productive, social, protective, cultural, etc.) and provide various ecosystem goods and services.

This Special Issue will provide an overview of the most recent advances in the field of growth and stand dynamics for both managed and unmanaged forests affected by environmental changes. This Special Issue aims to showcase selected contributors presenting advances in pure and multi-species forest growth rules, unmanaged and managed stand dynamics, and the implementation of conclusions resulting from observations of unmanaged forests that can aid in the modification of the management of managed forests in light of environmental changes.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Pure and mixed-species performance in managed and unmanaged forests;
  • Managed and unmanaged stand dynamics;
  • Forest productivity and stability;
  • The growth characteristics of managed and unmanaged forests;
  • The resistance, resilience, and recovery of managed and unmanaged forests;
  • A modified or new concept of silvicultural intervention in managed forests based on unmanaged stand dynamics;
  • Growth models;
  • Appropriate silvicultural treatments in managed forests.
  • The policy and governance of managed forests.

All listed topics should consider the impact of environmental changes on forests.

Prof. Dr. Maciej Pach
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • climate change
  • adaptive forest management
  • old-growth stands
  • stand dynamics
  • growth models
  • resistance
  • resilience
  • recovery
  • silvicultural prescriptions

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 18673 KB  
Article
Unexpected Long-Term Forest Experiments: A Case on the Island of Porto Santo, Madeira
by Leónia Nunes, Natália Nunes, Sara Freitas and Francisco Castro Rego
Forests 2025, 16(10), 1605; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101605 - 20 Oct 2025
Viewed by 476
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the long-term adaptation and growth performance of 50 species introduced in 1991 on the island of Porto Santo, Madeira Archipelago, in order to guide afforestation and soil restoration under the island’s arid conditions, especially in [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to assess the long-term adaptation and growth performance of 50 species introduced in 1991 on the island of Porto Santo, Madeira Archipelago, in order to guide afforestation and soil restoration under the island’s arid conditions, especially in biosphere reserves. The experiment was conducted in Alentejo, Pico Juliana and Matinho, three sites with different types of elevation, soil and exposure. A total of 502 experimental units (five plants each) were established with a completely randomized design in the three sites in 1991 to test the adaptation of 50 species from Mediterranean, African, Australian and American dry climates. Plants were grown in local nursery conditions and planted in rows with 1 × 4 m spacing. Soil properties were analyzed, and survival and growth (height and stem diameter) were monitored in 1991, 1992 and 2025. An analysis of variance was performed for the whole experiment, with the three sites showing significant differences in survival and height among species and sites thirty-four years after the planting. Some species showed high survival and growth, such as Pinus halepensis, Eucalyptus sideroxylon and Casuarina cunninghamiana. Others, like Schinus terebinthifolius and Thevetia neriifolia, showed good adaptation, and invasive behavior at the best sites, but their performance was strongly dependent on site conditions, with Alentejo being the most limiting site. This study demonstrates the long-term value of forest experiments and of long-term monitoring, providing rare data on species adaptation under semi-arid insular conditions. The findings support future afforestation strategies focusing on ecological suitability and invasiveness risk. Full article
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13 pages, 5844 KB  
Article
Construction of Stand Density Management Diagrams and Silvicultural Simulation for Different Stand Types of Chinese Fir in the Mid-Subtropics
by Yang Guo, Xunzhi Ouyang, Ping Pan, Jun Liu and Chang Liu
Forests 2025, 16(10), 1543; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101543 - 5 Oct 2025
Viewed by 465
Abstract
Clarifying the role of density regulation in different stand types of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is beneficial for sustainable management. Stand density management diagrams (SDMDs) can help in simulating thinning, regulating stand structure, and balancing timber yield. This study, conducted in [...] Read more.
Clarifying the role of density regulation in different stand types of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) is beneficial for sustainable management. Stand density management diagrams (SDMDs) can help in simulating thinning, regulating stand structure, and balancing timber yield. This study, conducted in Ganzhou City, a mid-subtropical region of China, used second-class forest resource survey plots dominated by Chinese fir, including 541 Chinese fir pure stands, 232 Chinese fir-conifer mixed stands, and 351 Chinese fir-broadleaf mixed stands. Equations for self-thinning, dominant height, and stand volume were constructed, and the SDMDs were subsequently developed to simulate two management scenarios: self-thinning and thinning. The results indicate that self-thinning relationships differ among Chinese fir stand types and that appropriate thinning can improve stand growth. Mixed stands, particularly Chinese fir–broadleaf mixed stands, showed greater growth potential at later stages, highlighting the role of species mixing in reducing competition and enhancing resource-use efficiency. The SDMDs developed in this study provide a practical tool for density regulation and silvicultural planning in Chinese fir plantations. However, being based on regional-scale growth models, the results mainly reflect regional conditions and should be further validated with long-term experiments. Full article
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12 pages, 6068 KB  
Article
Variation in Functional Traits of Woody Plants Across Successional Stages in Subtropical Forests
by Cheng Sun, Jie Yao, Yongtao Huang and Runguo Zang
Forests 2025, 16(5), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050868 - 21 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 791
Abstract
Variation patterns in plant functional traits and their interrelationships play a crucial role in understanding species coexistence mechanisms and ecological differentiation within local plant communities. However, the dynamic patterns of plant functional traits across different forest successional stages remain insufficiently understood. Here, we [...] Read more.
Variation patterns in plant functional traits and their interrelationships play a crucial role in understanding species coexistence mechanisms and ecological differentiation within local plant communities. However, the dynamic patterns of plant functional traits across different forest successional stages remain insufficiently understood. Here, we investigated the woody species composition of subtropical evergreen–deciduous broadleaved mixed forest across 75 plots, representing three successional stages (20-year-old secondary forest, 35-year-old secondary forest, and old-growth forest (>80 years)), in Xingdoushan and Mulinzi National Nature Reserves, Hubei Province, Central China. We measured four functional traits of woody plants: leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), and wood density (WD). For each different age plant community, we calculated (1) species abundance-weighted mean community trait values, and (2) species-level mean trait values. We applied trait gradient analysis to partition and assess correlations of four functional traits across communities of different successional stages, separating within-community (α components) and between-community (β components) variation. To quantify the extent to which environmental constraints influence trait expression, we used the ecological constraint index (Ci). The results revealed significant variation in the four functional traits across communities at different successional stages. Community-level mean LA and SLA decreased significantly with age, WD increased significantly with age, and there was no significant relationship between LDMC and age. The α trait components consistently varied more widely than β components at different successional stages, indicating that biological competition dominates the assembly of local forest communities across various successional stages. Correlations between the four functional traits were dynamically adjusted with the study scale (community-level and species-level) and forest age. The ecological constraints on the four functional traits varied significantly across forest successional stages, with SLA being subject to the strongest constraints. Our findings reveal that biotic competition predominantly shapes community assembly during the succession of subtropical evergreen–deciduous broadleaved mixed forests, while stronger ecological filtering in old-growth stands underscores their role in maintaining ecosystem stability. These insights support more effective conservation and restoration strategies. Full article
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17 pages, 646 KB  
Article
Innovative Peat-Free Organic Substrates and Fertilizers Influence Growth Dynamics and Root Morphology of Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus robur L. Seedlings One Year After Planting
by Odunayo James Rotowa, Stanisław Małek, Dawid Kupka, Maciej Pach and Jacek Banach
Forests 2025, 16(5), 800; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050800 - 10 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1018
Abstract
This study evaluated the effects of six innovative peat-free substrate formulations, combined with either a conventional solid fertilizer or a novel liquid fertilizer developed by the research team, on the early growth and root morphology of Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus robur L. [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the effects of six innovative peat-free substrate formulations, combined with either a conventional solid fertilizer or a novel liquid fertilizer developed by the research team, on the early growth and root morphology of Fagus sylvatica L. and Quercus robur L. seedlings. Treatments were analyzed through two-way ANOVA and species-specific linear regression models. Following one year of field growth, survival rates remained high across all treatments. While R22 (a peat-free substrate with liquid fertilizer) exhibited the highest mean values for seedling height and diameter, only height showed statistically significant variation among treatments (p < 0.05), with no significant differences observed for diameter increment. It was further, revealed that seedlings treated with peat-free substrates and liquid fertilizers exhibited adequate survival, with several combinations especially R22 showing comparable performance to traditional peat-based media with solid fertilizer. Root morphological traits, particularly fine root length (≤0.50 mm) were strong predictors of above-ground growth in F. sylvatica, but less so in Q. robur, which relied more on total root length. The results highlight species-specific root–shoot coordination strategies, with beech exhibiting above-ground growth pattern and oak a gravitropic one. The findings concluded that R22 substrates confirmed exceptional performance with enhanced root growth comparable to peat after one year of forest planting, indicating strong potential for future development without the environmental concerns associated with peat use. Full article
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14 pages, 2784 KB  
Article
Stand States Drive Disparities in the Carbon Storage Within a Masson Pine Forest Ecosystem
by Jiamin Hu, Weihua Wen and Zongzheng Chai
Forests 2025, 16(3), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030499 - 12 Mar 2025
Viewed by 652
Abstract
Forest ecosystems are important for carbon storage but vary in their ability to do so. Here, we examined the relationship between stand state and ecosystem carbon storage in Pinus massoniana forests, pinpointed key stand state indicators affecting carbon storage, and provided a basis [...] Read more.
Forest ecosystems are important for carbon storage but vary in their ability to do so. Here, we examined the relationship between stand state and ecosystem carbon storage in Pinus massoniana forests, pinpointed key stand state indicators affecting carbon storage, and provided a basis for management to enhance ecosystem carbon storage. We selected nine indicators representing structure (diameter at breast height (DBH) distribution, tree height distribution, stand density), vitality (stand dominance, stand growth, and tree health), and diversity (species composition, species diversity, and species evenness) to evaluate the stand state. Multivariate statistical analyses, specifically the Mantel test and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), were employed to explore the complex relationships between the stand states of P. massoniana forests and their carbon storage. We found that (1) stand state has a strong influence on carbon storage, but there is autocorrelation among the indicators of stand states; (2) stand structural attributes have a stronger association with ecosystem carbon storage than vitality and diversity. The primary stand state indicators associated with ecosystem carbon storage are DBH distribution (H), tree growth (B), stand density (K), tree height distribution (V), and species evenness (P); (3) the stand density (K) significantly affects the carbon storage in the vegetation layer, while the DBH distribution (H) significantly affects the carbon storage in the soil layer. None of the nine stand-state indicators, however, has a major influence on the carbon storage in the litter layer. Our results indicate that important stand-state indicators can be managed to improve forest quality and carbon storage in P. massoniana forests. Full article
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16 pages, 4026 KB  
Article
Do Stands Self-Thin Through a Common Point? An Additional Concept for the Self-Thinning Rule
by P. W. West and D. A. Ratkowsky
Forests 2025, 16(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020199 - 22 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1392
Abstract
Once the steady and ongoing mortality of individuals in a plant population has started, the widely accepted ‘self-thinning rule’ holds; this maintains that the set of progressive average sizes of the plants and their residual stocking densities bear a constant relationship to each [...] Read more.
Once the steady and ongoing mortality of individuals in a plant population has started, the widely accepted ‘self-thinning rule’ holds; this maintains that the set of progressive average sizes of the plants and their residual stocking densities bear a constant relationship to each other. This work aimed to quantify the self-thinning processes of monospecific Eucalyptus obliqua L’Hér. forest using data from each of a set of plots in Tasmania, Australia. Unexpectedly, it was found that, with or without extrapolation, the self-thinning lines of all the plots tended to intersect near a common plant average size and stocking density. This finding was extended using previously published data for monospecific forests of seven other tree species spread widely across the world, five hardwood and two softwood. All five showed the same phenomenon. Whilst this adds a new concept to the existing self-thinning rule, no immediate explanation could be offered as to why it occurs. It was concluded that it will require studying the various mechanisms that determine tree growth behavior, the competitive interactions between individuals for the resources each requires from the site (light, water, and mineral nutrients), and how these lead to the mortality of smaller, less competitively successful individuals. Full article
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15 pages, 2185 KB  
Article
The Short-Term Impact of Logging Intensity on the Stand State of Middle-Aged Masson Pine (Pinus massoniana Lamb.) Plantations
by Jing Tu, Zhongwen Zhao and Zongzheng Chai
Forests 2025, 16(1), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010183 - 19 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1170
Abstract
By assessing the short-term impact that various logging intensities have on stand state in middle-aged P. massoniana plantations, this investigation aimed to establish a theoretical foundation to support the judicious management of Pinus massoniana plantations. Five distinct logging intensity categories were delineated (0%, [...] Read more.
By assessing the short-term impact that various logging intensities have on stand state in middle-aged P. massoniana plantations, this investigation aimed to establish a theoretical foundation to support the judicious management of Pinus massoniana plantations. Five distinct logging intensity categories were delineated (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%). To construct a robust stand-state evaluation framework, nine representative indicators across the three dimensions of structure, vitality, and diversity were selected. We scrutinized the short-term impacts of logging intensity by employing the unit circle method. The findings revealed that (1) four indicators—stand density, tree health, species composition, and species diversity—exhibited pronounced sensitivity to logging intensity. These four exhibited significant improvements in the short-term post-logging (p < 0.05). Conversely, the indicators of species evenness, diameter distribution, height distribution, tree dominance, and stand growth exhibited a more subdued response to logging intensity. These five necessitated an extended period to begin to improve. (2) The comprehensive evaluation values measuring the stand state of middle-aged P. massoniana plantations initially ascended but then subsequently descended as logging intensity escalated. The stand-state zenith was pinpointed at an approximate 30% logging intensity. (3) A highly significant linear correlation emerged between the unit circle method results and the principal component analysis results in evaluating stand state (R2 = 0.909, p < 0.001), and the unit circle method proved to be more intuitive and responsive. In summation, logging intensity exerted a substantial influence on stand state in middle-aged P. massoniana plantations, with moderate logging (circa 30% logging intensity) enhancing stand state the most. The unit circle method proficiently and effectively illuminated the short-term effects of logging intensity on the stand dynamics of middle-aged P. massoniana plantations, so it thereby may provide invaluable guidance for the formulation of specific forest management strategies. Full article
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