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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 October 2022) | Viewed by 26517

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. V Indra Gandhi

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Guest Editor

School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
Interests: renewable energy; power electronics; smart grid; soft computing techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microgrids deliver efficient, low-cost and clean energy while improving regional electric grids operation and stability. They further provide exceptional dynamic responsiveness for energy resources. A global portfolio of operations centred on the development and deployment of microgrids to increase grid dependability and resilience would therefore assist communities in better preparing for future weather catastrophes and keep the world moving toward a sustainable energy future. Solar photovoltaic systems are seen as a promising renewable resource, and their application in microgrids has grown rapidly in recent years.

This Special Issue aims to present and disseminate the most recent developments in energy resources, monitoring, control, protection, operation, power converters, energy storage and the application of microgrids.

Topics of interest for this publication include, but are not limited to:

Microgrid architecture, monitoring and analysis;
Transient-state control and protection;
Energy management of hybrid renewable energy systems;
Energy management and optimization;
Power quality enhancement;
Power electronic converter for micro-grid;
Distributed energy sources;
Microgrid communication architecture;
Battery energy storage technologies;
Steady-state control and coordination;
AC/DC micro-grid design;
Smart power infrastructure;
Energy reliability and security;
Residential micro-grid;
Microgrid electric vehicle charging.

Prof. Dr. V Indra Gandhi
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

photovoltaic Systems
energy Storage Systems
microgrid
energy Management System (EMS)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 11339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Quality Analysis of a Hybrid Microgrid-Based SVM Inverter-Fed Induction Motor Drive with Modulation Index Diversification

by Subramanian Vasantharaj, Vairavasundaram Indragandhi, Mohan Bharathidasan and Belqasem Aljafari

Energies 2022, 15(21), 7916; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15217916 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1095

Abstract

The effects of varying modulation indices on the current and voltage harmonics of an induction motor (IM) powered by a three-phase space vector pulse-width modulation (SVM) inverter are presented in this research. The effects were examined using simulation and an experimental setup. IMs can be governed by an SVM inverter drive or a phase-angle control drive for applications that require varying speeds. The analysis of THD content in this study used the modulation index (MI), whose modification affects the harmonic content, and voltage-oriented control (VOC) with SVM in three-phase pulse-width modulation (PWM) inverters with fixed switching frequencies. The control technique relies on two cascaded feedback loops, one controlling the grid current and the other regulating the dc-link voltage to maintain the required level of dc-bus voltage. The control strategy was developed to transform between stationary (α–β) and synchronously rotating (d–q) coordinate systems. To test the viability of the suggested control technique, a 1-hp/3-phase/415-V experimental prototype system built on the DSPACE DS1104 platform was created, and the outcomes were evaluated with sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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20 pages, 6465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of a Photovoltaic System Based on a Highly Efficient Single-Phase Transformerless Inverter

by Belqasem Aljafari, Ashok Kumar Loganathan, Indragandhi Vairavasundaram, Selvamathi Ramachadran and Amutha Prabha Nagarajan

Energies 2022, 15(17), 6145; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176145 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1611

Abstract

The essential requirement for a cleaner environment, along with rising consumption, puts a strain on the distribution system and power plants, reducing electricity availability, quality, and security. Grid-connected photovoltaic systems are one of the solutions for overcoming this. The examination and verification of transformerless topologies and control techniques was a significant goal of this study. The transformerless concept is advantageous for its high efficiency; the transformerless converter has added advantages of reduced price, complexity, weight, and size. This study presents a novel high-efficiency transformerless architecture that does not create common-mode currents and does not inject DC current into the grid. A single-phase transformerless inverter circuit with two step-down converters was constructed in this study. Low-frequency switches determine the polarity of the grid connection. In order to control the gate pulses of switching devices, which each regulate a half-wave of the output current, a PIC 16F877 was employed. Because there were fewer semiconductors and they were simpler to operate, it was possible to achieve a high degree of efficiency and reliability. A prototype model with input 12 V, 2 A was fabricated, test results were obtained with reduced common-mode current and DC current, and high efficiency was obtained with reduced switching losses. Further investigation for the improvement of efficiency with the elimination of ground current and leakage current has been analysed through simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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19 pages, 12001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Photovoltaic-Based Transformerless High Step-Up Dual-Output–Dual-Input Converter with Low Power Losses for Energy Storage Applications

by Belqasem Aljafari, Senthil Kumar Ramu, Gunapriya Devarajan and Indragandhi Vairavasundaram

Energies 2022, 15(15), 5559; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155559 - 31 Jul 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1495

Abstract

The synchronous integration of numerous input and output loads is possible with multi-input (MI) and multi-output (MO) DC–DC converters. In this paper, the non-isolated DC–DC converter described, which has a high step-up capability and multiple ports for outputs and inputs for energy storage system (ESS) applications. The voltage level of the converter is changeable. The capacity to provide the large voltage increases with a low duty cycle portion, the ease with which each duty cycle can be controlled, and minimal power losses are all advantages of the proposed design. The proposed system offers advantages for applications requiring energy storage. In the continuous conduction mode (CCM), the operation principles, steady-state evaluation, and extracting of the voltage and current coefficients are performed. The supply sources can be inserted or withdrawn without causing a cross-regulation issue in the proposed converter. Ultimately, the functionality of the proposed structure is examined using simulation and the laboratory prototype that has been implemented. The proposed converter achieved 94.3% efficiency at maximum power. In addition, the proposed converter attained minimum losses with a difference of 28.5 W when compared to a conventional converter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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18 pages, 5589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Single-Phase Shunt Active Power Filter with a Cost Function Based Model Predictive Current Control Technique

by Belqasem Aljafari, Kanagavel Rameshkumar, Vairavasundaram Indragandhi and Selvamathi Ramachandran

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4531; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134531 - 21 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

For a single-phase Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with a two-step prediction, this research presents a modified current control based on a Model Predictive Current Control (MPCC) technique. An H-bridge inverter, a DC link capacitor, and a filter inductor comprise the single-phase SAPF topology. The SAPF reference current is computed using the DC-link capacitor voltage regulation-based PI control technique. The weighting factor-based model predictive current controller is used to track the current commands. The essential dynamic index for evaluating waveform quality is the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of a source current and switching frequency of power switches. The conventional methods the THD and switching frequency are not considered as an objective function, so that a weighting factor-based MPCC technique is used to obtain a good compromise between the THD of the source current and switching frequency of power switches. Through MATLAB simulation and experimentation with the Cyclone-IV EP4CE30F484 FPGA board, the usefulness of the proposed control technique is proven. As compared with hysteresis, predictive PWM, and conventional MPCC control methods, the cost function-based MPCC algorithm provides a lower switching frequency (13.4 kHz) with an optimal source current THD value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 9322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Power Management Strategy with Fuel Cell, Battery, and Supercapacitor for Fuel Economy in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Application

by V. Mounica and Y. P. Obulesu

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4185; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124185 - 7 Jun 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5010

Abstract

The power management strategy (PMS) is intimately linked to the fuel economy in the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). In this paper, a hybrid power management scheme is proposed; it consists of an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference method (ANFIS) and the equivalent consumption minimization technique (ECMS). Artificial intelligence (AI) is a key development for managing power among various energy sources. The hybrid power supply is an eco-acceptable system that includes a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) as a primary source and a battery bank and ultracapacitor as electric storage systems. The Haar wavelet transform method is used to calculate the stress

(σ)

on each energy source. The proposed model is developed in MATLAB/Simulink software. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme meets the power demand of a typical driving cycle, i.e., Highway Fuel Economy Test Cycle (HWFET) and Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP—Class 3), for testing the vehicle performance, and assessment has been carried out for various PMS based on the consumption of hydrogen, overall efficiency, state of charge of ultracapacitors and batteries, stress on hybrid sources and stability of the DC bus. By combining ANFIS and ECMS, the consumption of hydrogen is minimized by 8.7% compared to the proportional integral (PI), state machine control (SMC), frequency decoupling fuzzy logic control (FDFLC), equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) and external energy minimization strategy (EEMS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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19 pages, 6831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real Time Hardware-in-Loop Implementation of LLC Resonant Converter at Worst Operating Point Based on Time Domain Analysis

by Kiran Kumar Geddam and Elangovan Devaraj

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3634; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103634 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2694

Abstract

The inductor inductor capacitor (LLC) resonant topology has become more popular for deployment in high power density and high-efficiency power converter applications due to its ability to maintain zero voltage switching (ZVS) over a wider input voltage range. Due to their ease of operation and acceptable accuracy, frequency domain-related analytical methods using fundamental harmonic approximation (FHA) have been frequently utilized for resonant converters. However, when the switching frequency is far from the resonant frequency, the circuit currents contain a large number of harmonics, which cannot be ignored. Therefore, the FHA is incapable of guiding the design when the LLC converter is used to operate in a wide input voltage range applications due to its inaccuracy. As a result, a precise LLC converter model is needed. Time domain analysis is a precise analytical approach for obtaining converter attributes, which supports in the optimal sizing of LLC converters. This work strives to give a precise and an approximation-free time domain analysis for the exact modeling of high-frequency resonant converters. A complete mathematical analysis for an LLC resonant converter operating in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)—i.e., the boost mode of operation below resonance—is presented in this paper. The proposed technique can confirm that the converter operates in PO mode throughout its working range; in addition, for primary MOSFET switches, it guarantees the ZVS and zero current switching (ZCS) for the secondary rectifier. As a function of frequency, load, and other circuit parameters, closed-form solutions are developed for the converter’s tank root mean square (RMS) current, peak stress, tank capacitor voltage, voltage gain, and zero voltage switching angle. Finally, an 8 KW LLC resonant converter is built in the hardware-in-loop (HIL) testing method on RT-LAB OP-5700 to endorse the theoretical study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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19 pages, 7424 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Steady State Modeling and Performance Analysis of a Wind Turbine-Based Doubly Fed Induction Generator System with Rotor Control

by Belqasem Aljafari, Jasmin Pamela Stephenraj, Indragandhi Vairavasundaram and Raja Singh Rassiah

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3327; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093327 - 3 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2534

Abstract

The utilization of renewable energy sources aids in the economic development of a country. Among the various renewable energy sources, wind energy is more effective for electricity production. The doubly fed induction generator is an extensively known wind turbine generator for its partially rated power converters and dynamic performance. The doubly fed induction generator assists the wind turbine to function with a wide speed range. Hence, the steady-state performance analysis of a doubly fed induction generator helps enable it to operate efficiently at a specific wind turbine speed. In this paper, a 2 MW variable speed pitch regulated doubly fed induction generator with a speed range of 900—2000 rpm was opted for steady-state analysis. This was followed by the design and modelling of a doubly fed induction generator in Matlab/Simulink environment, and the analyses were performed using mathematical equations computed via Matlab coding. The steady-state magnitudes were calculated with rotor magnetization i_dr = 0. The closed-loop stator flux-oriented vector control is applied to the rotor side converter for controlling the designed doubly fed induction generator model. The simulation results were compared with computational values to establish a workable model with less than 10% error. The simulation model can be used for predicting the performance of the machine, fault analysis, and validation of existing DFIG at a steady state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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Review

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21 pages, 9011 KiB

Open AccessReview

Comparative Study of DC-DC Converters for Solar PV with Microgrid Applications

by Ingilala Jagadeesh and Vairavasundaram Indragandhi

Energies 2022, 15(20), 7569; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207569 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

This review emphasizes the role and performance of versatile DC-DC converters in AC/DC and Hybrid microgrid applications, especially when solar (photo voltaic) PV is the major source. Here, the various converter topologies are compared with regard to voltage gain, component count, voltage stress, and soft switching. This study suggests the suitability of the converter based on the source type. The merits of a coupled inductor and interleaved converters in micro gird applications are elucidated. The efficiency and operating frequencies of converts for different operating modes are presented to determine the suitable converters for inductive and resistive loads. The drawbacks of converters are discussed. Finally, the mode of operation of different converts with different grid power sources and its stability and reliability issues are highlighted. In addition, the significance of the converter’s size and cost-effectiveness when choosing various PV source applications are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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30 pages, 2004 KiB

Open AccessReview

Optimization of DC, AC, and Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid-Based IoT Systems: A Review

by Belqasem Aljafari, Subramanian Vasantharaj, Vairavasundaram Indragandhi and Rhanganath Vaibhav

Energies 2022, 15(18), 6813; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186813 - 18 Sep 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3125

Abstract

Smart microgrids, as the foundations of the future smart grid, combine distinct Internet of Things (IoT) designs and technologies for applications that are designed to create, regulate, monitor, and protect the microgrid (MG), particularly as the IoT develops and evolves on a daily basis. A smart MG is a small grid that may operate individually or in tandem with the electric grid, and it is ideal for institutional, commercial, and industrial consumers, as well as urban and rural societies. A MG can operate in two methods (stand-alone and grid-connected), with the ability to transition between modes due to local grid faults, planned maintenance, expansions, deficits and failures in the host system, and other factors. Energy storage is the process of storing and converting energy that can be used for a variety of purposes, including voltage and frequency management, power backup, and cost optimization. IoT is designed to deliver solutions for optimal energy management, security protocols, control methods, and applications in the MG, with numerous distributed energy resources (DER) and interconnected loads. The use of IoT architecture for MG operations and controls is discussed in this research. With the use of power grid equipment and IoT-enabled technology, MGs are enabling local networks to give additional services on top of the essential supply of electricity to local networks that operate simultaneously or independently from the regional grid. Additionally, this review shows how hybrid AC/DC MGs are advantageous compared to AC and DC MGs. The state-of-the-art optimization techniques and trends in hybrid MG research are included in this work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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20 pages, 4823 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scientometric Analysis and Review of the Emissions Trading System

by Yu-Jie Hu, Lishan Yang, Fali Duan, Honglei Wang and Chengjiang Li

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4423; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124423 - 17 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2029

Abstract

As a vital market mechanism to mitigate global warming, the emissions trading system (ETS) has critical research and practice value. According to articles from Web of Science’s core collection, quantitative statistics are used to analyze the ETS, including statistics on the number of articles, distributions of time and geography, journals and subjects, productive authors and institutions, academic collation, article citations, and hot topics. Moreover, this paper presents a qualitative analysis of research on the ETS, exploring hot issues, including its origin, allowance allocation, the impact of allowance allocation, and the ETS in the power sector. The results show that it is necessary to launch ETS to mitigate climate change effectively and reduce emissions at a low cost. Allowance allocation as its critical component has also caused heated discussion among scholars. In allowance allocation, exploring a desire to assign the future allowable carbon emissions reasonably and efficiently is vital, yet scholars widely do not accept this. Moreover, free allocation can only be applied to the transitional stage, and auctioning will be inevitable. In addition, scholars have studied the impact of different allowance allocation schemes from macro and micro perspectives and take the power sector, namely the largest emitter, as an example, by linear programming, equilibrium modeling, and multi-agent modeling. However, the quota allocation scheme needs improvement due to firms’ accuracy of emission data. Finally, governments are encouraged to launch the ETS to reduce emissions and combat climate change. The ETS should be improved gradually, including aspects such as cap setting, covering sectors, and the allocation method. Additionally, some key emission sectors and regions can be taken as the research and practice objects in the initial stage of the ETS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Energy Management for Microgrid and Photovoltaic Systems)

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