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Electronics
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Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications
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Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications

A special issue of Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292). This special issue belongs to the section "Circuit and Signal Processing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 March 2026 | Viewed by 23719

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Juraj Dudak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology, 91724 Trnava, Slovakia
Interests: microcontroller unit; embedded systems; IoT solution
Dr. Peter Strelec

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology, 91724 Trnava, Slovakia
Interests: embedded systems security; industrial internet of things devices

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The relentless development of technology continues to deliver ever-more powerful and versatile microcontrollers at competitive price points. This Special Issue of Electronics delves into the exciting potential that these advancements unlock for the designers of embedded system. We explore innovative applications leveraging the capabilities of modern microcontrollers, while acknowledging the constant need for efficient resource utilization and cost optimization.

The scope of this Special Issue includes the following topics:

  • Balancing performance and power consumption: Optimizing code and hardware for low-power operation while maintaining the necessary processing speed.
  • Security considerations in resource-constrained environments: Implementing robust security measures without compromising system performance or memory footprint.
  • The integration of emerging technologies: Exploring the seamless integration of technologies such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, and sensor fusion into resource-limited embedded systems.

Design for manufacturability and cost-effectiveness: Ensuring efficient production processes and minimizing material costs while achieving the desired functionality.

Dr. Juraj Dudak
Dr. Peter Strelec
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Electronics is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • microcontroller application
  • embedded system
  • security
  • performance and power consumption
  • IoT devices

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 810 KB  
Article
Simple True Random Number Generator Using Capacitive Oscillators for FPGA Implementation
by Zbigniew Hajduk
Electronics 2025, 14(21), 4228; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14214228 - 29 Oct 2025
Viewed by 592
Abstract
The need for unpredictable sequences of bits is common in many important security applications. These sequences can only be generated by true random number generators (TRNGs). Apart from the natural analog domain for TRNGs, this type of generator is also required as a [...] Read more.
The need for unpredictable sequences of bits is common in many important security applications. These sequences can only be generated by true random number generators (TRNGs). Apart from the natural analog domain for TRNGs, this type of generator is also required as a digital-based solution, particularly leveraging field-programmable gate array (FPGA) platforms. Despite the number of existing FPGA-based implementations, new solutions that use different types of entropy sources, utilize fewer FPGA resources, or ensure higher throughput are still being sought. This paper presents an architecture of a simple TRNG targeted for implementation in FPGAs. As a source of entropy, the TRNG exploits jitter in capacitive oscillators and metastability in flip-flops. The capacitive oscillators, in turn, use the input–output cells of an FPGA chip and unconnected external pins and cyclically charge and discharge the parasitic capacitance associated with these pins. The TRNG needs a small number of FPGA resources, namely 13 look-up tables (LUTs), 12 flip-flops, and 3 unused pins. Its throughput is approximately 12.5 Mbit/s for AMD/Xilinx Artix-7 FPGA family chips. The presented TRNG passes all the NIST statistical tests for a wide range of operating conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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14 pages, 16688 KB  
Article
A Universal I2C-to-RS-485 Module for Industrial Sensing
by Ivan Sládek, Martin Skovajsa, Pavol Kuchár, Júlia Kafková, Štefan Šedivý and Gabriel Gašpar
Electronics 2025, 14(18), 3675; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14183675 - 17 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1196
Abstract
Reliable and affordable data acquisition is crucial in industrial applications and critical infrastructure monitoring. However, common low-cost sensors with an I2C interface have limited range and low resistance to interference, which limits their deployment in demanding conditions. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Reliable and affordable data acquisition is crucial in industrial applications and critical infrastructure monitoring. However, common low-cost sensors with an I2C interface have limited range and low resistance to interference, which limits their deployment in demanding conditions. This study aimed to design and verify a universal module that bridges the I2C communication interface with the robust RS-485 industrial bus. A hardware module was designed and constructed to serve as a gateway. The core of the system is an STM32F0x1 microcontroller, which controls communication between the local I2C bus, designed to connect a wide range of sensors, and the RS-485 industrial interface. The design emphasizes robustness, including multi-level protection of power and communication circuits. The functionality of the proposed solution was verified by testing the prototype in real conditions. The module, equipped with a combined SHT30 temperature and humidity sensor, was deployed on the premises of the University of Žilina, Slovakia near transport infrastructure. The data collected from two weeks of continuous operation, recorded at ten-minute intervals, confirmed its reliable and error-free functionality. The result of this work is a modular and scalable platform that enables the easy integration of inexpensive sensors into robust industrial networks. This solution significantly reduces the cost and complexity of building distributed monitoring systems in areas such as transportation, industrial automation, and environmental monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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16 pages, 1404 KB  
Article
TinyML-Based Real-Time Doorway Activity Recognition with a Time-of-Flight Sensor
by Sahar Taheri Moghadar, Roberto Gandolfi and Emanuele Torti
Electronics 2025, 14(17), 3533; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14173533 - 4 Sep 2025
Viewed by 2284
Abstract
The present paper sets out a fully embedded system for real-time classification of human motion events at a doorway using a Time-of-Flight sensor and a Tiny Machine Learning model deployed on an Arduino Nano 33 IoT. The system is capable of distinguishing between [...] Read more.
The present paper sets out a fully embedded system for real-time classification of human motion events at a doorway using a Time-of-Flight sensor and a Tiny Machine Learning model deployed on an Arduino Nano 33 IoT. The system is capable of distinguishing between three distinct behaviors: entering, exiting, and approaching–leaving. This is achieved by analyzing sequences of distance measurements using a quantized 1D convolutional neural network. A dataset was collected from 15 participants, and the model was evaluated using both 70–30 and leave-one-subject-out validation protocols. The quantized model demonstrated an accuracy of over 95% in subject-aware testing and above 91% in subject-independent scenarios. When deployed on the microcontroller, the system demonstrated an inference time of 275 ms, an average power consumption of 16 mW, and 26 KB of SRAM usage. These results confirm the feasibility of accurate, real-time human motion classification in a compact, battery-friendly architecture suitable for smart environments and embedded monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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25 pages, 4788 KB  
Article
Development and Application of a Safety-Related Control System Implementing a Safety Function for a CNC Milling Machine
by Jozef Brtiš, Juraj Ždánsky, Jozef Hrbček and Karol Rástočný
Electronics 2024, 13(24), 4870; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13244870 - 10 Dec 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2014
Abstract
The safety of small CNC (Computer Numerical Control) milling machines is typically ensured through organizational measures. However, when such a CNC milling machine is used in a manner that may involve contact with untrained individuals or children (e.g., for demonstration purposes), it becomes [...] Read more.
The safety of small CNC (Computer Numerical Control) milling machines is typically ensured through organizational measures. However, when such a CNC milling machine is used in a manner that may involve contact with untrained individuals or children (e.g., for demonstration purposes), it becomes essential to ensure safety through appropriate technical measures. The required safety can be achieved by implementing safety functions to mitigate identified hazards. This paper addresses the design and application of a Safety-Related Control System (SRCS) that implements safety functions for a small CNC milling machine. A notable aspect of this implementation is that commonly available sensors (e.g., optical barriers) with a defined Safety Integrity Level (SIL) are unsuitable for small CNC milling machines in size, cost, and performance parameters. For instance, these sensors might fail to detect the entry of a child’s hand. Consequently, it was necessary to design suitable custom sensors for realizing an SRCS. The paper also demonstrates the achieved SIL for the implemented safety functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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13 pages, 504 KB  
Article
Design and Implementation of a Smart AC Current Source for Impedance Spectroscopy Using ARM Microcontrollers
by Salvador Meléndez Muñoz, Emilio Silvestre Mérida, Santiago J. Fernández Scagliusi, Andreea M. Oprescu, Antonio Algarín Pérez and Pablo Pérez García
Electronics 2024, 13(23), 4805; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13234805 - 5 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1865
Abstract
This paper explores the development of a low-cost alternating current (AC) smart current generator using ARM Cortex-M33 microcontrollers with integrated peripherals, Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and Operational amplifiers (OPAMPS). The system generates an AC voltage signal through the DAC, which is then [...] Read more.
This paper explores the development of a low-cost alternating current (AC) smart current generator using ARM Cortex-M33 microcontrollers with integrated peripherals, Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and Operational amplifiers (OPAMPS). The system generates an AC voltage signal through the DAC, which is then converted to an AC using integrated operational amplifiers and passive components. The proposed design provides a compact, low-power, cost-effective solution which is suitable for optimized embedded system sensor design. Results show a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of up to 70 dB and a total harmonic distortion (THD) as low as 0.2%, illustrating the potential for advanced sensing applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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18 pages, 3899 KB  
Article
Leakage Power Attack-Resilient Design: PMOS-Reading 9T SRAM Cell
by Muyu Yang, Prakash Balasubramanian, Kangqi Chen and Erdal Oruklu
Electronics 2024, 13(13), 2551; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13132551 - 28 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2319
Abstract
Non-invasive side-channel attacks (SCAs) based on leakage power analysis (LPA) have received more attention recently, since leakage current has gradually become more dominant with further scaled technologies. For SRAM cells, LPA exploits the correlation between data in memory cells and their corresponding leakage [...] Read more.
Non-invasive side-channel attacks (SCAs) based on leakage power analysis (LPA) have received more attention recently, since leakage current has gradually become more dominant with further scaled technologies. For SRAM cells, LPA exploits the correlation between data in memory cells and their corresponding leakage power. This paper proposes a novel SRAM design in 7 nm node for countering LPA attacks, based on a single-ended PMOS-reading 9T (nine-transistor) cell design. The leakage current imbalance, delay, stability, and robustness of SRAM cells are examined for the proposed memory cell architecture with layout designs, and results are compared against other SRAM cell designs. Simulation results and failure of LPA attacks in case studies confirm the enhanced resilient behavior for the new SRAM cell design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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23 pages, 10754 KB  
Article
Advancing Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Manufacturing: Framework for IoT-Based Data Collection in Industry 4.0 Concept
by Martin Barton, Roman Budjac, Pavol Tanuska, Ivan Sladek and Martin Nemeth
Electronics 2024, 13(13), 2485; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13132485 - 25 Jun 2024
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3421
Abstract
Currently, industrial engineers are witnessing a rapid development of innovation in modern industry and the integration of critical elements of Industry 4.0 into production processes in order to remain competitive. Such changes are characterized by a large amount of effort and financial resources. [...] Read more.
Currently, industrial engineers are witnessing a rapid development of innovation in modern industry and the integration of critical elements of Industry 4.0 into production processes in order to remain competitive. Such changes are characterized by a large amount of effort and financial resources. To successfully deploy these changes requires not only the purchase of hardware and software but also the training of employees and the modification of the company’s organizational structure. The main objective of the article is to propose a framework for the modernization of SMEs to a level close to the Smart Factory by using the necessary attributes of Industry 4.0. The framework design is based on the initial state of a standard SME and consists of the design of fitting new IoT devices for efficient data collection, the design of a data warehouse for storing process data using Hadoop, and the integration of process- and operational-level data into the prepared data warehouse. The resulting design is developed in the form of a methodology and is generalized for use in manufacturing enterprises. The universal design is independent of the initial state of the enterprise. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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Review

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33 pages, 702 KB  
Review
A New Era in Stress Monitoring: A Review of Embedded Devices and Tools for Detecting Stress in the Workplace
by Júlia Kafková, Pavol Kuchár, Rastislav Pirník, Michal Skuba, Tomáš Tichý and Jiří Brož
Electronics 2024, 13(19), 3899; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13193899 - 2 Oct 2024
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7875
Abstract
Detection of stress and the development of innovative platforms for stress monitoring have attracted significant attention in recent years due to the growing awareness of the harmful effects of stress on mental and physical health. Stress is a widespread issue affecting individuals and [...] Read more.
Detection of stress and the development of innovative platforms for stress monitoring have attracted significant attention in recent years due to the growing awareness of the harmful effects of stress on mental and physical health. Stress is a widespread issue affecting individuals and often goes unnoticed as a health concern. It can lead to various negative physiological conditions, including anxiety, depression, cardiovascular diseases and cognitive impairments. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of studies focusing on embedded devices for non-invasive stress detection, primarily in the form of a modified computer mouse or keyboard. This study not only fills a critical gap in the literature but also provides valuable insights into the design and implementation of hardware-based stress-detection methods. By focusing on embedded devices, specifically computer peripherals, this research highlights the potential for integrating stress monitoring into everyday workplace tools, thereby offering practical solutions for improving occupational health and well-being. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Embedded Systems and Microcontroller Smart Applications)
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