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Children
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Cognitive Development in Children
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Cognitive Development in Children

A special issue of Children (ISSN 2227-9067). This special issue belongs to the section "Pediatric Neurology & Neurodevelopmental Disorders".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 June 2025 | Viewed by 9562

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Faculty of Sport Sciences, European University of Madrid, 28670 Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain
2. Faculty of Applied Social Sciences and Communications, UNIE, 28015 Madrid, Spain
Interests: nutrition; physical activity; executive functions; adolescents; psychology; psychophysiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain
Interests: child stress; physiology; psychology; nutrition; health; disease; environment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cognitive development in children is a multifaceted process encompassing the maturation of various mental faculties, including perception, memory, language, problem-solving, and reasoning abilities. This intricate progression unfolds across distinct stages, shaped by intrinsic biological factors, environmental influences, type of education, and social interactions. Contemporary research integrates aspects of both, acknowledging the interplay between individual cognitive processes, such as the development of executive functions, and sociocultural influences. Moreover, advancements in the field of neuroscience have elucidated the neural underpinnings of cognitive development, highlighting the dynamic interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental experiences.

Consequently, contributions exploring the neural underpinnings of cognitive milestones across different developmental stages are particularly welcome in this Special Issue. Additionally, research that looks into the role that genetics, brain plasticity, and environmental enrichment play in cognitive development would also help us understand how this process works. Furthermore, research examining the impact of sociocultural factors, familial interactions, and educational interventions on cognitive development contributes to a holistic understanding of this dynamic phenomenon. By exploring the psychophysiological underpinnings of cognitive growth and examining the myriad influences shaping this process, researchers endeavor to shed light on the complexities of childhood cognitive development.

Dr. Sandra Martín-Rodríguez
Prof. Dr. Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Children is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cognition
  • development
  • executive functions
  • children
  • education

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 913 KiB  
Article
The Individual and Combined Effects of Prenatal Micronutrient Supplementations on Neurobehavioral Developmental Disorders in Preschool Children
by Liwen Ding, Esben Strodl, Maolin Zhang and Weiqing Chen
Children 2025, 12(5), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050602 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 310
Abstract
Background: Neurobehavioral developmental disorders significantly affect children’s future well-being and contribute to the global disease burden. While prenatal micronutrient supplementation is crucial for fetal neural development, their individual and combined effects on subsequent neurobehavioral outcomes in childhood remain poorly understood. This study aimed [...] Read more.
Background: Neurobehavioral developmental disorders significantly affect children’s future well-being and contribute to the global disease burden. While prenatal micronutrient supplementation is crucial for fetal neural development, their individual and combined effects on subsequent neurobehavioral outcomes in childhood remain poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the individual and combined effects of prenatal micronutrient supplementation on neurobehavioral developmental disorders in preschool children, and to explore their effects across specific developmental domains. Methods: 15,636 mother-child dyads were recruited from the 2022 children’s survey in Shenzhen, China. Mothers provided information on prenatal supplementation of calcium, folic acid, iron, and multivitamins. Five domains of children’s neurobehavioral functioning were assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Third Edition (communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem-solving, and personal-social status). Logistic regression models were used to estimate the effect of micronutrient supplementations on NDDs across crude, adjusted, and full-inclusion models. Combined effects were assessed by multiplicative and additive interactions calculated from crossover analysis. Results: 11.7% of preschool children were identified as at risk for neurobehavioral developmental disorders, with the highest prevalence in the gross motor domain. Prenatal multivitamin supplementation showed a protective effect against neurobehavioral developmental disorders (OR = 0.73, 95% CI = 0.66–0.81). Interaction analysis revealed that the combination of iron and multivitamins further enhanced this protection, with both multiplicative (IOR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.02–1.57) and additive interactions (RERI = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.02–0.35). The problem-solving domain consistently showed the greatest benefit from the supplementation of these micronutrients individually and in combination. Conclusions: Prenatal multivitamin supplementation reduces the risk of neurobehavioral developmental disorders, especially when combined with iron supplementation. These findings highlight the potential benefits of prenatal co-supplementation strategies to improve neurobehavioral outcomes in offspring. Further studies are recommended to confirm these findings and explore underlying mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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13 pages, 1198 KiB  
Article
Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Version of the Child-to-Parent Violence Questionnaire in Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
by Ching-Shu Tsai, Chung-Ying Lin, Ray C. Hsiao and Cheng-Fang Yen
Children 2025, 12(4), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12040408 - 24 Mar 2025
Viewed by 237
Abstract
Purpose: Child-to-parent violence (CPV) is a major concern for adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Child-to-Parent Violence Questionnaire (CPV-Q) is a valid instrument for assessing a wide variety of CPV behaviors and the reasons; however, the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of [...] Read more.
Purpose: Child-to-parent violence (CPV) is a major concern for adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Child-to-Parent Violence Questionnaire (CPV-Q) is a valid instrument for assessing a wide variety of CPV behaviors and the reasons; however, the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of CPV-Q (C-CPV-Q) in adolescents with ADHD have not been examined yet. This study examined the psychometric properties of both child and parent versions of C-CPV-Q in adolescents with ADHD. Participants and Methods: In total, 247 adolescents with ADHD and their parents participated in the study. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to examine the factor structure for CPV types and reasons. Internal consistency, cross-validation, and concurrent validity of the parent and child versions of C-CPV-Q were also evaluated. Results: The results of CFA found that both child and parent versions of the C-CPV-Q contained four domains of CPV types and two domains of CPV reasons in adolescents with ADHD. The correlations between parent and child reports of the C-CPV-Q assessing the same factors were stronger than those assessing different factors. Concurrent validity of the C-CPV-Q was supported by their positive correlations with internalizing, externalizing, attention deficit/hyperactivity, oppositional defiant, and conduct problems. Except for the financial aggression factor, the entire C-CPV-Q had acceptable internal consistency. Conclusions: The results indicate that the child and parent versions of the C-CPV-Q are valid instruments for assessing a wide variety of CPV behaviors and the reasons among adolescents with ADHD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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10 pages, 510 KiB  
Article
Neurodevelopmental Effects of Propranolol Treatment During Infancy in Infantile Hemangioma Patients
by Cenk Baykan, Melike Mete Çiftseven, Gonca Keskindemirci, Öykü Özbörü Aşkan, Alev Bakır Kayı, Serap Karaman, Ayşegül Ünüvar, Deniz Tuğcu, Emine Gulbin Gokcay, Merve Arslan, Zeynep Karakaş and Hikmet Gülşah Tanyıldız
Children 2024, 11(12), 1557; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11121557 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1149
Abstract
Introduction and Aim: Propranolol is an effective treatment option for infantile hemangiomas, but there is still insufficient information about neurodevelopmental side effects of propranolol. In our study, the neurodevelopmental levels of infantile hemangioma patients receiving propranolol treatment were examined using the Bayley-III test. [...] Read more.
Introduction and Aim: Propranolol is an effective treatment option for infantile hemangiomas, but there is still insufficient information about neurodevelopmental side effects of propranolol. In our study, the neurodevelopmental levels of infantile hemangioma patients receiving propranolol treatment were examined using the Bayley-III test. Method: In our single-center, cross-sectional study, patients were recruited between 1 January 2020 and 31 December 2023. In total, 40 children (n1) diagnosed with hemangioma who received propranolol treatment and 31 children (n2) who were only under observation were included. A control group of 31 healthy children (n3) matched for age and gender was also included. The demographic, clinical, perinatal, and postnatal characteristics of the total 102 children were recorded from their medical records. Neurodevelopmental levels were assessed with the Bayley-III test. The significance level was set at (p < 0.05). Results: The Bayley-III test composite and percentile scores were used to evaluate the neurodevelopmental levels. Significant differences in motor functions were found between the treated and untreated groups compared to the healthy control group (p = 0.006 and p = 0.006). However, no significant differences were found in cognitive, language, and social-emotional skills. Cognitive, language, and motor functions were associated with maternal education level, and additionally, cognitive functions were also associated with paternal education level. Conclusions: Propranolol has a relatively safer side effect profile, and therefore, it has been described as a safe agent. In our study, no significant effect of propranolol on neurodevelopment was observed. The difference in motor skills shown was mainly between the healthy control group (n3) and the treated and untreated group (n1 and n2), which led to the conclusion that the relevant difference could be due to factors other than propranolol itself. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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18 pages, 1055 KiB  
Article
Neurocognitive Profile and Associated Factors Among Children Affected by Sickle Cell Disease in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo: A Cross-Sectional Study
by Patricia V. M. Lelo, Faustin Nd Kitetele, Marcel Kunyu, Cathy E. Akele, Daniel L. Okitundu, David Lackland Sam, Michael J. Boivin and Espérance Kashala-Abotnes
Children 2024, 11(12), 1521; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11121521 - 14 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1071
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Understanding the neurocognitive profile of children with sickle cell disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo is essential, as this condition can significantly affect their development. Our study aims to assess these children’s neurocognitive and developmental profiles and identify related factors. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Understanding the neurocognitive profile of children with sickle cell disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo is essential, as this condition can significantly affect their development. Our study aims to assess these children’s neurocognitive and developmental profiles and identify related factors. Methods: We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study involving 287 children, aged 0 to 68 months, using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning and the Gensini Gavito Scale. We also screened for maternal depression using the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-10. Results: More than half of the participants were boys, with an average age of 4 years. Remarkably, 95.8% (score T < x¯ +2 SD) of children scored below average on the Mullen Scales. Significant associations were found between early neurocognitive development and factors like maternal depression, socioeconomic status, maternal education, age of weaning, and responses to the Ten-Questions Questionnaire (p < 0.005). Conclusion, children with sickle cell disease show below-average cognitive development, with maternal depression being a critical factor. Longitudinal studies are vital to understanding the long-term cognitive effects of sickle cell disease, particularly in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where targeted support is urgently needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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13 pages, 425 KiB  
Article
Executive Functions and Special Educational Needs and Their Relationship with School-Age Learning Difficulties
by Juan Manuel Núñez, Ana Soto-Rubio and Marián Pérez-Marín
Children 2024, 11(11), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11111398 - 19 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1378
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The relationship between executive functions, special educational needs (SEN), and learning difficulties in school-aged children is critical for developing effective educational interventions. This study explores the connection between executive functions and SEN in primary school students, examining differences in executive function profiles [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: The relationship between executive functions, special educational needs (SEN), and learning difficulties in school-aged children is critical for developing effective educational interventions. This study explores the connection between executive functions and SEN in primary school students, examining differences in executive function profiles between those with and without SEN and their impact on learning difficulties. Methods: In total, 123 primary school students aged 6 to 12 and their teachers and parents participated in this study. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF-2) and the Prediscal test were used to assess difficulties in reading and mathematics, and sociodemographic and clinical data were collected through ad hoc records. Results: The results indicated that students with SEN exhibited significantly more affected executive function profiles compared to their peers without SEN in both family and school contexts, highlighting areas such as cognitive flexibility, initiative, working memory, planning and organisation, task supervision, and material organisation. Additionally, significant negative correlations were found between executive functions and performance in reading and mathematics, suggesting that deficits in executive functions are strongly associated with SEN. Conclusions: These findings underscore the critical role of executive functions in understanding and addressing SEN and learning difficulties, emphasising the need for comprehensive assessment programmes and early intervention targeting executive function deficits to support the academic and overall development of students with SEN. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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12 pages, 411 KiB  
Article
Loneliness and Problematic Internet Use in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Dissociation
by Alessio Matiz, Fabio D’Antoni, Stefania Pascut, Rebecca Ciacchini, Ciro Conversano, Angelo Gemignani and Cristiano Crescentini
Children 2024, 11(11), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11111294 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1954
Abstract
Background/Objectives. Problematic Internet uUse (PIU) is a multifaceted syndrome characterized by excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, urges, or behaviors regarding Internet use leading to significant impairments in daily life and mental health. Previous research has separately related PIU to loneliness and dissociation, both [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives. Problematic Internet uUse (PIU) is a multifaceted syndrome characterized by excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, urges, or behaviors regarding Internet use leading to significant impairments in daily life and mental health. Previous research has separately related PIU to loneliness and dissociation, both in adults and adolescents. The aim of the present study is to analyze the mutual relationship between PIU, loneliness, and dissociation in an adolescent sample, in particular evaluating the indirect effect of dissociation on the relationship between loneliness and PIU. Methods. A cross-sectional design was used with 243 Italian high school students (69.1% females), from year 9 to 13 (age: M = 17.1, SD = 1.4 years), who participated in the study from January to June 2020. They completed measures of PIU (Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2), loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale), and dissociation (Adolescent Dissociative Experiences Scale). Socio-demographic and contextual variables were also collected (i.e., age, gender, type of school, school year, sport practice, hobby engagement, assessment before/during the COVID-19 pandemic). Data were analyzed using regression, Pearson’s correlation, and mediation analysis. Results. Severe PIU was observed in 8.6% of the sample. None of the socio-demographic and contextual variables had a significant effect on PIU. Positive medium-sized correlations were observed between PIU, loneliness, and dissociation. Mediation analyses showed an indirect effect of loneliness on PIU through dissociation. Conclusions. Feelings of loneliness may significantly exacerbate adolescents’ PIU by increasing their dissociative tendency. Understanding this dynamic is crucial for developing targeted interventions to address both loneliness and dissociation in efforts to mitigate PIU among adolescents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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17 pages, 1663 KiB  
Article
Differential Impact of WM Load on Attention in Young Adults Versus Children and Adolescents
by Hyojin Park and So-Yeon Kim
Children 2024, 11(9), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11091057 - 29 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1044
Abstract
Background: This study aimed to examine how concurrent working memory (WM) loads affect selective attention, and to explore developmental differences between young adults and children/adolescents aged 10 to 14 years. Methods: We employed a modified Stroop task with verbal or spatial WM [...] Read more.
Background: This study aimed to examine how concurrent working memory (WM) loads affect selective attention, and to explore developmental differences between young adults and children/adolescents aged 10 to 14 years. Methods: We employed a modified Stroop task with verbal or spatial WM loads to assess their impact on attention. Results: In adults, we found increased Stroop effects when WM load overlapped with target processing and decreased Stroop effects when WM load overlapped with distractor processing. Conversely, in children/adolescents, WM loads did not significantly impact target or distractor processing, indicating no change in Stroop effects under dual-task conditions. Interestingly, results from the correlational analyses revealed that as participants’ ages increase, the interference effect under the WM load that shares resources with distractor processing in the attention task decreases. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the interaction between attention and WM differs across developmental stages. While adults showed distinctive effects of concurrent WM loads on attention processing depending on the cognitive resources utilized, children/adolescents failed to show the interaction between the two cognitive systems. Furthermore, a significant relationship between age and the effects of WM load on attention was observed, providing insights into the development of the interaction between WM and attention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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12 pages, 293 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Academic, Behavioral, and Psychophysiological Variables in Male and Female Vocational Training Students
by Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez, Ana Isabel Beltrán-Velasco, Daniel Mendoza-Castejón, Stephanie Rodríguez-Besteiro, Francisco López-Varas and Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez
Children 2024, 11(7), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11070851 - 13 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1364
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether or not there are notable differences between male and female vocational training students in terms of academic, behavioral, and psychophysiological characteristics. Methods: A total of 411 vocational training students, 210 of whom were [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether or not there are notable differences between male and female vocational training students in terms of academic, behavioral, and psychophysiological characteristics. Methods: A total of 411 vocational training students, 210 of whom were male and 201 of whom were female, participated in an online survey that assessed academic, behavioral, and psychophysiological patterns. Results: In terms of extraversion and openness to experience, our research revealed that no statistically significant differences were noticed. When it came to agreeableness, however, significant differences were seen, with female students getting higher marks than male students. Furthermore, we found that there were significant gender differences in terms of neuroticism and conscientiousness, with female students achieving higher scores than male students. When compared to their male counterparts, females displayed higher performance in terms of academic success. They also demonstrated superior values in terms of reported stress, anxiety, and cognitive inflexibility. Conclusions: The findings of this study provide a more in-depth understanding of the numerous factors that have an impact on students engaging in vocational training. This will serve as a foundation for the development of individualized instructional and support programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Development in Children)
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