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Buildings
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Cold-Formed Steel Structures
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Cold-Formed Steel Structures

A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Structures".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 18818

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Krishanu Roy

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Civil Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
Interests: cold-formed steel structures; application of artificial intelligence and machine learning for the structural prediction of steel structures; fire engineering; modular construction; sustainability and life cycle analysis of structures
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Cold-formed steel (CFS) members are made from structural quality sheet steel that are formed into C-sections and other shapes by roll forming the steel through a series of dies. No heat is required to form the shapes (unlike hot-rolled steel), hence the name cold-formed steel. A variety of steel thicknesses are available to meet a wide range of structural and non-structural applications. CFS structures are however susceptible to different buckling failures, which can cause significant damages to CFS structures. Therefore, Dr Roy warmly invites authors to submit their papers for potential inclusion in this Special Issue of “Cold-formed steel structures", on themes that may include but are not limited to:

- High strength CFS structures
- Stability of CFS beams and columns
- Seismic response of CFS structures
- CFS portal frames
- Web crippling of CFS sections
- Fire and seismic performance of CFS framed shear walls
- Hysteretic behaviour of CFS wall panels
- Fire furnace tests on CFS members
- Cold-formed stainless steel sections
- CFS cladding systems
- Sustainability of CFS structures

Dr. Krishanu Roy
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • High strength CFS structures
  • Stability of CFS beams and columns
  • Seismic response of CFS structures
  • FS portal frames
  • Web crippling of CFS sections
  • Fire and seismic performance of CFS framed shear walls
  • Hysteretic behaviour of CFS wall panels
  • Fire furnace tests on CFS members
  • Cold-formed stainless steel sections
  • CFS cladding systems
  • Sustainability of CFS structures 

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

32 pages, 22664 KiB  
Article
Buckling Behavior of Perforated Cold-Formed Steel Uprights: Experimental Evaluation and Comparative Assessment Using FEM, EWM, and DSM
by George Taranu, Serban Iacob and Nicolae Taranu
Buildings 2025, 15(9), 1561; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091561 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 347
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation of the axial compression behavior of perforated cold-formed steel upright profiles commonly used in pallet racking systems. The primary objective is to examine how slenderness influences the failure modes and load-bearing capacity of these structural [...] Read more.
This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation of the axial compression behavior of perforated cold-formed steel upright profiles commonly used in pallet racking systems. The primary objective is to examine how slenderness influences the failure modes and load-bearing capacity of these structural elements. Three column lengths, representative of typical vertical spacing in industrial rack systems, were tested under pin-ended boundary conditions. All specimens were fabricated from 2 mm thick S355 steel sheets, incorporating web perforations and a central longitudinal stiffener. Experimental results highlighted three distinct failure mechanisms dependent on slenderness: local buckling for short columns (SS-340), combined distortional–flexural buckling for medium-length columns (MS-990), and global flexural buckling for slender columns (TS-1990). Finite Element Method (FEM) models developed using ANSYS Workbench 2021 R1 software accurately replicated the observed deformation patterns, stress concentrations, and load–displacement curves, with numerical results differing by less than 5% from experimental peak loads. Analytical evaluations performed using the Effective Width Method (EWM) and Direct Strength Method (DSM), following EN 1993-1-3 and AISI S100 specifications, indicated that EWM tends to underestimate the ultimate strength by up to 15%, whereas DSM provided results within 2–7% of experimental values, especially when the entire net cross-sectional area was considered fully effective. The originality of the study is the comprehensive evaluation of full-scale, perforated, stiffened cold-formed steel uprights, supported by robust experimental validation and detailed comparative analyses between FEM, EWM, and DSM methodologies. Findings demonstrate that DSM can be reliably applied to perforated sections with moderate slenderness and adequate web stiffening, without requiring further local reduction in the net cross-sectional area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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18 pages, 3718 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Assessment of a Structural Insulated Panel Modular House in New Zealand
by Aflah Alamsah Dani, Ran Feng, Zhiyuan Fang and Krishanu Roy
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010146 - 6 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1391
Abstract
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions [...] Read more.
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions (20%). This research aims to analyse the environmental impacts of a structural insulated panel (SIP) modular house and evaluate this innovative approach as a sustainable solution to the current housing issue. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted using the New Zealand-specific tool LCAQuick V3.6. The analysis considered seven environmental impact indicators, namely, global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), abiotic depletion potential for elements (ADPE), and abiotic depletion potential for fossil fuels (ADPF), with a cradle-to-cradle system boundary. Focusing on the embodied carbon of the SIP modular house, the study revealed that the whole-of-life embodied carbon was 347.15 kg CO2 eq/m2, including Module D, and the upfront carbon was 285.08 kg CO2 eq/m2. The production stage (Modules A1–A3) was identified as the most significant source of carbon emissions due to substantial energy consumption in activities such as sourcing raw materials, transportation, and final product manufacturing. Specifically, the study found that SIP wall and roof panels were the most significant contributors to the house’s overall embodied carbon, with SIP roof panels contributing 25% and SIP wall panels contributing 19%, collectively accounting for 44%. Hence, the study underscored the SIP modular house as a promising sustainable solution to the housing crisis while emphasising the inclusion of operational carbon in further research to fully understand its potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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32 pages, 11574 KiB  
Article
Effect of Stiffeners on the Axial Strength of Face-to-Face Unequal-Angle Cold-Formed Steel Columns
by Beulah Gnana Ananthi Gurupatham, Krishanu Roy and James Boon Piang Lim
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010088 - 30 Dec 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 715
Abstract
Cold-formed steel (CFS) unsymmetrical angles are increasingly used in structural applications such as portal frames, roof trusses, and transmission towers. However, research on built-up face-to-face unsymmetrical CFS angle columns (FFUACs) with stiffeners remains limited. This study addresses this gap by presenting the findings [...] Read more.
Cold-formed steel (CFS) unsymmetrical angles are increasingly used in structural applications such as portal frames, roof trusses, and transmission towers. However, research on built-up face-to-face unsymmetrical CFS angle columns (FFUACs) with stiffeners remains limited. This study addresses this gap by presenting the findings from six experimental investigations on intermediate FFUACs connected using intermittent screw fasteners. The results offer insights into failure deformation patterns and load-axial shortening behaviour. A nonlinear finite element (FE) model was developed to account for material and geometric nonlinearity, with experimental results used for validation. This study contributes 166 new data points, including six experimental tests under concentric compression and 160 finite element analysis (FEA) results focused on the compressive strength of FFUACs. Additionally, this study evaluates the performance of existing design guidelines based on the direct strength method (DSM). The DSM strength predictions were found to be less conservative for stub FFUAC specimens that failed due to local buckling and more conservative for short FFUAC specimens that failed due to a combination of local and flexural buckling. A revised DSM methodology is proposed to address these discrepancies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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17 pages, 3084 KiB  
Article
On the Stresses in Thin-Walled Channels Under Torsion
by John Papangelis
Buildings 2024, 14(11), 3533; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113533 - 5 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1072
Abstract
Thin-walled channel beams such as cold-formed steel purlins are primarily used to withstand wind forces in the roofing and walling systems of buildings. Traditionally, these types of members are usually designed for bending moments, with the effects of torsion ignored. However, the loading [...] Read more.
Thin-walled channel beams such as cold-formed steel purlins are primarily used to withstand wind forces in the roofing and walling systems of buildings. Traditionally, these types of members are usually designed for bending moments, with the effects of torsion ignored. However, the loading on thin-walled channels can be much more complicated than simple bending actions. Because of the position of the shear centre outside the section, channels can undergo bending and torsion when subjected to vertical load on the top flange. The applied torsion may cause significant stresses in the channel, which may need to be accounted for in design. There appears to be no research on quantifying the effects of torsion on thin-walled channels subjected to a uniformly distributed load acting on the top flange. In this paper, a theoretical solution is derived for calculating the longitudinal stresses in thin-walled channels subjected to torsion caused by a uniformly distributed load acting on the top flange. The theory is validated by modelling the channels in a finite-element analysis. The theoretical results include calculations of the twist rotation, bimoment, sectorial coordinate and longitudinal stresses, while the results from the finite-element analysis include the twist rotation and longitudinal stresses. The results show that the longitudinal stresses caused by torsion can significantly exceed those caused by the bending moment. Practical advice is also given for engineers on how to minimize torsion in cold-formed steel purlins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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18 pages, 6713 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Cross-Sections in Portal Frames
by Mantas Stulpinas and Alfonsas Daniūnas
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2565; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082565 - 20 Aug 2024
Viewed by 995
Abstract
Portal frames with built-up cold-formed cross-sections hold significant potential; however, there is a notable gap in the analysis of cross-section types and connections. In this study, an optimization algorithm was developed for the closed cross-sections of portal frame members. An optimization algorithm was [...] Read more.
Portal frames with built-up cold-formed cross-sections hold significant potential; however, there is a notable gap in the analysis of cross-section types and connections. In this study, an optimization algorithm was developed for the closed cross-sections of portal frame members. An optimization algorithm was tested against optimized open cold-formed cross-sections. The results indicated a portal frame volume up to 38% lower where members were assembled of optimal closed cross-sections when compared to frames with optimal open cross-sections. Parametric analysis was carried out, where two types of cross-sections were examined: Type A, with four web stiffeners bent inwards, and Type B, with four web stiffeners bent outwards. The optimization was conducted using a Genetic Algorithm in MATLAB R2022b. Portal frames with optimal Type B cross-sections had a volume that was up to 22% lower when compared to frames with optimal Type A cross-sections. Significant differences were noted between the optimal beam and column cross-sections, with the optimal column cross-section thickness being on average 74% greater, but the optimal beam cross-section height being on average 81% greater than those of the respective counterparts. In this article, a practical assembly solution for the connection of the frame members was proposed for the optimized novel closed cross-section types in portal frames. However, the strength and stiffness of these connections were not analyzed in this research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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22 pages, 2797 KiB  
Article
Unified Model for Axial Bearing Capacity of Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Circular Columns Based on Hoek–Brown Failure Criterion
by Ziao Zhou
Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102408 - 22 Sep 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1167
Abstract
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) composite columns can overcome the brittleness of concrete and improve the plastic deformation ability of concrete, thus improving its strength and deformation ability. At present, most of the published models for predicting the axial bearing capacity of CFST columns [...] Read more.
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) composite columns can overcome the brittleness of concrete and improve the plastic deformation ability of concrete, thus improving its strength and deformation ability. At present, most of the published models for predicting the axial bearing capacity of CFST columns are empirical models based on the nonlinear fitting of experimental data, which has some limitations on the application of the models. Therefore, to establish a new unified theoretical model, a new ultimate compressive strength of core concrete was established by the Hoek–Brown failure criterion, and the conversion formula between the cube and cylinder compressive strength was also established in this paper. At the same time, the strength-reduction coefficient influenced by the slenderness ratio was also established. The newly established unified model can predict the axial bearing capacity of CFST columns with different steel types, concrete types, slenderness ratios, diameter-to-thickness ratios, and cross-sectional dimensions. At the same time, the newly established unified model can be applied to a wider range of test parameters. To determine the parameters in the proposed model and assess the models, a total of 798 test data were collected. Based on the test database, the existing models and the proposed model were evaluated. The results show that the proposed model has very high accuracy in predicting the test results of CFST short and long columns, and the average value (AV) and integral absolute error (IAE) are 1.012 and 0.094, respectively. In addition, the model proposed in this paper also has high accuracy in predicting the axial bearing capacity of CFST columns under high temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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20 pages, 19760 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of the CFS-PU Composite Wall Panel under Axial Compression
by Antonio Bakran, Paulina Krolo, Lazar Lukačević and Ivan Palijan
Buildings 2023, 13(8), 1897; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081897 - 26 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3613
Abstract
This study presents an innovative design for a cold-formed steel polyurethane (CFS-PU) composite wall panel, combining a cold-formed steel frame, a polyurethane foam infill, and a gypsum fibreboard sheathing. The foam filling process, in which the foam is injected under pressure, ensures uniform [...] Read more.
This study presents an innovative design for a cold-formed steel polyurethane (CFS-PU) composite wall panel, combining a cold-formed steel frame, a polyurethane foam infill, and a gypsum fibreboard sheathing. The foam filling process, in which the foam is injected under pressure, ensures uniform distribution, bonding, and interaction of all panel components. The aim of the study is to evaluate the behaviour of the CFS-PU composite panels and the influence of the PU foam and sheathing on the performance of the CFS frame structure. For this purpose, a comprehensive test programme was conducted with nine full-scale specimens, including four CFS-F specimens without infill and sheathing and five CFS-PU specimens with infill and sheathing on both sides. The study examined various aspects of the specimens, including failure modes, stability, stiffness, load-bearing capacity, and ductility index. By analysing these parameters, valuable insights were gained into the performance characteristics of the composite wall panels. The load-bearing capacity of the CFS-PU test specimens was improved by 2.34 times and the stiffness by 1.47 times compared to the CFS-F test specimens. The positive results highlight the potential of foam and sheathing in improving the axial compression performance of CFS walls. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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27 pages, 19927 KiB  
Article
Influence of Intermediate Stiffeners on Axial Capacity of Thin-Walled Built-Up Open and Closed Channel Section Columns
by Beulah Gnana Ananthi Gurupatham, Krishanu Roy, Gary M. Raftery and James Boon Piang Lim
Buildings 2022, 12(8), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081071 - 22 Jul 2022
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3158
Abstract
This paper investigates the post-buckling behaviour and axial capacity of thin-walled steel stiffened single-channel sections (ISSCS) and back-to-back stiffened channel sections (BISCS). BISCS were connected using fasteners at a spacing of 200 mm and with an edge distance of 100 mm. Under axial [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the post-buckling behaviour and axial capacity of thin-walled steel stiffened single-channel sections (ISSCS) and back-to-back stiffened channel sections (BISCS). BISCS were connected using fasteners at a spacing of 200 mm and with an edge distance of 100 mm. Under axial compression, 10 new ISSCS and BISCS columns with fixed-ended conditions were tested. In the experimental tests, the back-to-back channel sections failed due to a combination of local and global buckling, whereas the single-channel sections generally failed as a result of local buckling. The behaviour of both ISSCS and BISCS shows a 20% increase on an average in axial capacity through adding stiffeners at the junction of the flange and the web, in addition to stiffeners in the web. A nonlinear finite element model (FEM) with material and geometric nonlinearities was then developed. The FE model was validated against the experimental results. A comprehensive parametric study comprising 64 face-to-face intermediate stiffened channel sections (FISCS) was then conducted to study the influence of stiffener length on its axial capacity. The axial capacity obtained from the tests and FEA shows that design in accordance with the Direct Strength Method (DSM) is accurate and conservative by only 4% on average. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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29 pages, 9619 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Prefabricated Cold-Formed Steel Stud Wall Panels Sheathed with Fireproof Phenolic Boards under Out-of-Plane Loading
by Gengqi Zhao, Wanqiong Chen, Dapeng Zhao and Ke Li
Buildings 2022, 12(7), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12070897 - 25 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4361
Abstract
In this paper, new prefabricated cold-formed light-gauge steel stud wall panels sheathed with fireproof phenolic boards, which are fabricated by connecting the steel studs and the boards by using structural silicone sealant, was proposed. The proposed prefabricated wall has a good fireproof performance [...] Read more.
In this paper, new prefabricated cold-formed light-gauge steel stud wall panels sheathed with fireproof phenolic boards, which are fabricated by connecting the steel studs and the boards by using structural silicone sealant, was proposed. The proposed prefabricated wall has a good fireproof performance and can be manufactured rapidly in a factory. Full-scale tests on the mechanical properties of the prefabricated wall system, consisting of the prefabricated wall and the connection between the wall and the surrounding steel structure under out-of-plane loading, were performed. A total of six specimens were tested considering the effects of the arrangement of the cold-formed light-gauge steel studs, the shape and thickness of the steel connector for jointing the prefabricated wall panel and the surrounding steel structure, and the number of self-tapping screws connecting the surrounding structure. The results show that the out-of-plane stiffness of the prefabricated wall system in the elastic stress state under out-of-plane loading can be increased by increasing the number of self-tapping screws, increasing the thickness of the steel connector, or adopting the symmetrical arrangement of the light-gauge steel studs. The out-of-plane stiffness of the prefabricated wall system and the stiffness contribution of a single special-shaped steel connector can both be increased by increasing the number of special-shaped steel connectors. Furthermore, the special-shaped steel connector is more beneficial to a greater out-of-plane stiffness than the L-shaped steel connector. In addition, the theoretical calculation methods for deflection of the proposed prefabricated wall and flexural stress of the CFS C-channel stud considering the fireproof phenolic board sheathing effect under elastic state were proposed. The predicted results using the proposed method are compared with test results and the predicted results by using other methods. It was found that the predicted results by using the proposed method agreed better with the test results compared with the predicted results using the transformed-section method or the reduced stiffness method, which demonstrates the acceptability and accuracy of the proposed mothed for calculating deflection of the proposed prefabricated wall and flexural stress of the CFS C-channel stud. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
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