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Biomimetics
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Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition
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Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition

A special issue of Biomimetics (ISSN 2313-7673). This special issue belongs to the section "Locomotion and Bioinspired Robotics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2026 | Viewed by 8256

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, Brazil
Interests: mechanical engineering; biomechanics; motion analysis; bioengineering; biomechatronics; robotic rehabilitation; medical robotics; bionics; design and control of prostheses, orthoses, and exoskeletons; user-robot interaction; soft robot
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Bionic technology has been successfully used to enhance human capabilities and improve the quality of life of disabled people. Recent advances in robotics, mechatronics, data science, soft robotics, neuroscience, photonics, and electronics have paved the way for a new generation of robotic prostheses and exoskeletons. However, the development of wearable robots is highly challenging. These systems should be lightweight and powerful enough to replace or support the limbs and capable of safely interacting with the user physically and cognitively.

For this Special Issue, entitled “Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition”, we call for contributions from researchers in the field of biomechatronics that cover design and control, exoskeletons, prostheses, physical and cognitive user–robot interaction in wearable robots, and medical robots and bionic devices, among other relevant topics.

Dr. Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Biomimetics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • prosthetics and exoskeletons
  • rehabilitation robotics
  • physical human–robot interaction
  • cognitive human–robot interaction
  • wearable robotics
  • medical robots and systems
  • design and control
  • bioinspired robot learning
  • machine learning for robot control
  • soft robots

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 2929 KB  
Article
Design and Evaluation of a Trunk–Limb Robotic Exoskeleton for Gait Rehabilitation in Cerebral Palsy
by Hui Li, Ming Li, Ziwei Kang and Hongliu Yu
Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020101 - 2 Feb 2026
Viewed by 658
Abstract
Most pediatric exoskeletons for cerebral palsy (CP) focus on lower-limb assistance and neglect trunk control, limiting rehabilitation outcomes. This study presents a self-aligning trunk–limb exoskeleton that integrates trunk stabilization with active lower-limb support. The design includes a hip–waist rapid adjustment mechanism, a bioinspired [...] Read more.
Most pediatric exoskeletons for cerebral palsy (CP) focus on lower-limb assistance and neglect trunk control, limiting rehabilitation outcomes. This study presents a self-aligning trunk–limb exoskeleton that integrates trunk stabilization with active lower-limb support. The design includes a hip–waist rapid adjustment mechanism, a bioinspired gear-rolling knee joint, modular thigh–shank structures, a trunk support module, and a body-weight support device. To enable transparent and coordinated assistance under pathological gait conditions, a continuous gait progress-based multi-joint control framework is developed. Joint motion is described as continuous gait progress over the full gait cycle (0–100%), and joint-specific progress estimates are fused into a unified system-level reference using observability-weighted circular statistics. Inter-joint coordination is achieved through phase-consistency-based temporal modulation implemented, enabling smooth synchronization while preserving joint-level autonomy and motion continuity. Technical evaluation—comprising kinematic misalignment analysis, simulation validation, and gait trials—demonstrated a 66.8% reduction in hip misalignment and an 87.4% reduction in knee misalignment. Gait parameters under exoskeleton-assisted walking closely matched baseline walking, confirming natural kinematic preservation without interference. These results indicate that the proposed trunk–limb exoskeleton improves human–robot synergy, enhances postural stability, and provides a promising solution for pediatric gait rehabilitation in CP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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14 pages, 1926 KB  
Article
Real-Time Estimation of User Adaptation During Hip Exosuit-Assisted Walking Using Wearable Inertial Measurement Unit Data and Long Short-Term Memory Modeling
by Cheonkyu Park, Alireza Nasizadeh, Kiho Lee, Gyeongmo Kim and Giuk Lee
Biomimetics 2026, 11(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11020096 - 1 Feb 2026
Viewed by 640
Abstract
Wearable robots can improve human walking economy; however, their effectiveness depends on user adaptation to assistance. This study introduces a framework for real-time estimation of user adaptation that relies only on wearable sensor data during operation. Metabolic measurements were used solely to establish [...] Read more.
Wearable robots can improve human walking economy; however, their effectiveness depends on user adaptation to assistance. This study introduces a framework for real-time estimation of user adaptation that relies only on wearable sensor data during operation. Metabolic measurements were used solely to establish the ground truth adaptation curves for model training and validation but are not required for real-time inference. Five healthy adults completed six days of treadmill walking while wearing a soft hip exosuit that provided hip extension assistance. Thigh-mounted inertial measurement units recorded step timing and hip-angle trajectories, from which three variability-based features (step-frequency variability, maximum hip-flexion variability, and maximum hip-extension variability) were extracted. A Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) model used these gait-variability inputs to estimate each user’s adaptation level relative to a metabolic cost benchmark obtained from respiratory gas analysis. Across sessions, the metabolic cost decreased by 9.0 ± 5.6% from Day 1 to Day 6 (p < 0.01) with a mean time constant of 202 ± 78 min, In contrast, the variability in step frequency, maximum hip flexion, and maximum hip extension decreased by 66.4 ± 6.8%, 37.9 ± 24.2%, and 42.8 ± 10.6%, respectively, indicating that these reductions were users’ progressive adaptation to the exosuit’s assistance. Under leave-one-subject-out (LOSO) evaluation across five participants, 59.2% of the model predictions fell within ±10 percentage points of the metabolic cost–based adaptation curve. These results suggest that simple kinematic variability measured with wearable sensors can track user adaptation and support practical approaches to real-time monitoring. Such capability can facilitate adaptive control and training protocols that personalize exosuit assistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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15 pages, 1850 KB  
Article
Towards Biomimetic Robotic Rehabilitation: Pilot Study of an Upper-Limb Cable-Driven Exoskeleton in Post-Stroke Patients
by Develyn I. S. Bastos, Sergio C. M. Gomes, Eduardo A. F. Dias, Pedro H. F. Ulhoa, Raphaele C. J. S. Gomes, Fabiana D. Marinho and Rafhael M. Andrade
Biomimetics 2026, 11(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics11010011 - 26 Dec 2025
Viewed by 906
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of disability, often resulting in motor, cognitive, and language deficits, with significant impact on upper-limb function. Robotic therapy (RT) has emerged as an effective strategy, providing intensive, repetitive, and adaptable practice to optimize functional recovery. This pilot study [...] Read more.
Stroke is a leading cause of disability, often resulting in motor, cognitive, and language deficits, with significant impact on upper-limb function. Robotic therapy (RT) has emerged as an effective strategy, providing intensive, repetitive, and adaptable practice to optimize functional recovery. This pilot study aimed to describe and evaluate the effects of robotic rehabilitation as a complement to conventional therapy, using a biomimetic activities-of-daily-living (ADL)-based protocol, on upper-limb function in post-stroke patients. Three participants (aged 30–80 years) undergoing occupational and/or physiotherapy received individualized robotic training with a lightweight cable-driven upper-limb exoskeleton, m-FLEX™, twice a week for ten weeks (30 min per session). Movements were designed to mimic natural upper-limb actions, including elbow flexion-extension, forearm pronation-supination, tripod pinch, and functional tasks such as grasping a cup. Assessments included the Fugl-Meyer (FM) scale, the Functional Independence Measure (FIM), and device satisfaction, performed at baseline, mid-intervention, and post-intervention. Descriptive analysis of the tabulated data revealed improvements in range of motion and functional outcomes. These findings suggest that biomimetic protocol of robotic rehabilitation, when combined with conventional therapy, can enhance motor and functional recovery in post-stroke patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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11 pages, 839 KB  
Article
Step Timing Change over Time During Wearable Exoskeleton-Assisted Gait Training: A Cross-Sectional Study
by Tomohito Ito, Soichiro Koyama, Koki Tan and Shigeo Tanabe
Biomimetics 2025, 10(12), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10120820 - 7 Dec 2025
Viewed by 636
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the timing of foot-off and initial contact at the end of the first walking training session with a Wearable Power-Assist Locomotor (WPAL) in novice healthy users. Eight healthy volunteers with no walking experience with the WPAL participated in [...] Read more.
This study aimed to investigate the timing of foot-off and initial contact at the end of the first walking training session with a Wearable Power-Assist Locomotor (WPAL) in novice healthy users. Eight healthy volunteers with no walking experience with the WPAL participated in this study. The participants walked back and forth on a straight 5 m path for 60 min with the WPAL. We calculated the differences between the participant’s foot-off and initial contact timing, as well as the start and end timing of the pre-programmed WPAL lower-limb swing time. Data were divided into four segments of 100 data points. We calculated the median of the last 100 data points and examined whether it falls within an appropriate time range. The foot-off timing tended to be within the appropriate time range (median, −0.44 s); however, the initial contact timing was earlier than the appropriate time range (median, −0.17 s). Although some participants performed foot-off within the appropriate time range, all performed initial contact earlier than the appropriate time range. These findings may contribute to establishing practice protocols for stable walking with wearable robotic exoskeletons in patients with spinal cord injury. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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17 pages, 2502 KB  
Article
A Biomimetic Treadmill-Driven Ankle Exoskeleton: A Study in Able-Bodied Individuals
by Matej Tomc, Matjaž Zadravec, Andrej Olenšek and Zlatko Matjačić
Biomimetics 2025, 10(9), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10090635 - 21 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1226
Abstract
Despite rapid growth in the body of research on ankle exoskeletons, we have so far not seen their massive adoption in clinical rehabilitation. We foresee that an ankle exo best suited to rehabilitation use should possess the power generation capabilities of state-of-the-art active [...] Read more.
Despite rapid growth in the body of research on ankle exoskeletons, we have so far not seen their massive adoption in clinical rehabilitation. We foresee that an ankle exo best suited to rehabilitation use should possess the power generation capabilities of state-of-the-art active exos as well as the simplistic control and inherently suitable assistance timing seen in passive exos. In this paper we present and evaluate our attempt to create such a hybrid device: an Ankle Exoskeleton with Treadmill Actuation for Push-off Assistance. Using our device, we assisted a group of able-bodied individuals in generating ankle plantarflexion torque and power while measuring changes in biomechanics and electromyographic activity. Changes were mostly contained to the ankle joint, where a reduction in biological power and torque generation was observed in proportion to provided exo assistance. Assistance was comparable to state-of-the-art active exos in both timing and torque trajectory shape and well synchronized with the user’s own biological efforts, despite using a very simplistic controller. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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18 pages, 4937 KB  
Article
Cam-Based Simple Design of Constant-Force Suspension Backpack to Isolate Dynamic Load
by Haotian Ju, Zihang Guan, Junchen Liu, Yao Huang, Kerui Sun, Lele Li, Weimao Wang, Tianjiao Zheng, Quan Xiong, Jie Zhao and Yanhe Zhu
Biomimetics 2025, 10(9), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10090607 - 10 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1472
Abstract
Prolonged load carriage with ordinary backpacks (OBs) can cause muscle fatigue and skeletal injuries. Research indicates that suspended backpacks can effectively reduce energy expenditure; however, existing elastic rope-based suspension backpacks struggle to adapt to different speeds, while active suspension backpacks gain significant additional [...] Read more.
Prolonged load carriage with ordinary backpacks (OBs) can cause muscle fatigue and skeletal injuries. Research indicates that suspended backpacks can effectively reduce energy expenditure; however, existing elastic rope-based suspension backpacks struggle to adapt to different speeds, while active suspension backpacks gain significant additional weight due to the incorporated motors and batteries. This paper presents a novel cam-based constant-force suspension backpack (CCSB). The CCSB employs a cam–spring mechanism with near-zero suspension stiffness to minimize the inertial forces generated by load oscillations. A test platform was constructed to evaluate the constant-force performance of the mechanism, showing a maximum error of less than 1.96%. Load-carrying experiments were conducted at different walking speeds. Laboratory test results show that, compared with OBs, the CCSB reduces peak accelerative vertical force by an average of 84.47% and reduces human metabolic costs by 10.58%. Outdoor tests show that the CCSB can reduce transportation consumption by 8.26%. The CCSB’s compact structure makes it more suitable for commercialization and demonstrates significant potential for practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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Review

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22 pages, 5627 KB  
Review
Biomimetic Artificial Muscles Inspired by Nature’s Volume-Change Actuation Mechanisms
by Hyunsoo Kim, Minwoo Kim, Yonghun Noh and Yongwoo Jang
Biomimetics 2025, 10(12), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10120816 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 2038
Abstract
Artificial muscles translate the biological principles of motion into soft, adaptive, and multifunctional actuation. This review accordingly highlights research into natural actuation strategies, such as skeletal muscles, muscular hydrostats, spider silk, and plant turgor systems, to reveal the principles underlying energy conversion and [...] Read more.
Artificial muscles translate the biological principles of motion into soft, adaptive, and multifunctional actuation. This review accordingly highlights research into natural actuation strategies, such as skeletal muscles, muscular hydrostats, spider silk, and plant turgor systems, to reveal the principles underlying energy conversion and deformation control. Building on these insights, polymer-based artificial muscles based on these principles, including pneumatic muscles, dielectric elastomers, and ionic electroactive systems, are described and their capabilities for efficient contraction, bending, and twisting with tunable stiffness and responsiveness are summarized. Furthermore, the abilities of carbon nanotube composites and twisted yarns to amplify nanoscale dimensional changes through hierarchical helical architectures and achieve power and work densities comparable to those of natural muscle are discussed. Finally, the integration of these actuators into soft robotic systems is explored through biomimetic locomotion and manipulation systems ranging from jellyfish-inspired swimmers to octopus-like grippers, gecko-adhesive manipulators, and beetle-inspired flapping wings. Despite rapid progress in the development of artificial muscles, challenges remain in achieving long-term durability, energy efficiency, integrated sensing, and closed-loop control. Therefore, future research should focus on developing intelligent muscular systems that combine actuation, perception, and self-healing to advance progress toward realizing autonomous, lifelike machines that embody the organizational principles of living systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bionic Technology—Robotic Exoskeletons and Prostheses: 3rd Edition)
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