Biology

13 pages, 2188 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protoplasts Isolation and Transient Transformation System Optimization for Poplar 84K (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa)

by Chao Yu, Huimin Yu, Yirong Rui and Meiling Wang

Biology 2026, 15(10), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100780 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

In poplar, the protracted stable genetic transformation procedure constrains rapid gene functional analyses. To address this limitation, we optimized a protocol for the high-yield isolation and efficient transient transformation of protoplasts from leaves of tissue-cultured poplar 84K (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa [...] Read more.

In poplar, the protracted stable genetic transformation procedure constrains rapid gene functional analyses. To address this limitation, we optimized a protocol for the high-yield isolation and efficient transient transformation of protoplasts from leaves of tissue-cultured poplar 84K (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa). Through systematic refinement, we determined that an enzymatic digestion solution containing 3% cellulase R-10, 0.3% macerozyme R-10, 0.8% pectolyase R-10, and 0.4 M mannitol was optimal. This formulation, applied over a 3 h digestion period, yielded 12.9 × 10⁶ protoplasts per gram fresh weight, with 93.45% viability. Furthermore, we optimized the parameters for polyethylene glycol -mediated transformation. Using 60 µg of plasmid DNA, 40% polyethylene glycol 4000, and a 20 min incubation, we achieved a high transfection efficiency of 68.67%. The established transient expression system thus provides a reliable, rapid, and effective platform for functional characterization-related studies, such as subcellular localization, protein–protein interactions, and gene expression analyses in poplar, thereby supporting molecular breeding applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biotechnology)

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14 pages, 1779 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Echinococcus granulosus Sensu Stricto in Sheep from Kazakhstan

by Rabiga Uakhit, Aidana Tautanova, Ainura Smagulova, Carlos Hermosilla, Aida Abdybekova, Lyudmila Lider, Karina Jazina, Marat Dusmagambetov and Vladimir Kiyan

Biology 2026, 15(10), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100779 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic disease caused by the larval stage of the Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) complex. The disease is globally distributed, with particularly high prevalence in Central Asian countries, including Kazakhstan. Despite its significant impact on public health and [...] Read more.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic disease caused by the larval stage of the Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) complex. The disease is globally distributed, with particularly high prevalence in Central Asian countries, including Kazakhstan. Despite its significant impact on public health and livestock production, data on CE in sheep in Kazakhstan remain limited. This study investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto (s.s.) in sheep across Kazakhstan, addressing an important zoonotic disease affecting both livestock and human health. Over the course of one year, a total of 31,389 sheep were examined, and cystic echinococcosis cysts were collected from the livers and lungs of 550 infected sheep across 14 regions of Kazakhstan. Molecular analyses targeting mitochondrial genes (nad1, cox1) were performed to determine genetic diversity. The results revealed a higher occurrence of CE in the southern regions of the country. Among the genotyped isolates (57), genotype G1 was dominant, accounting for 84.2% (48) of the samples, whereas genotype G3 (9) was detected at a lower frequency in three regions. A total of 11 distinct haplotypes were identified, indicating considerable genetic diversity among the isolates. Haplotype network analysis suggested gene flow among populations and revealed the widespread presence of the most common haplotype (EgKZ-2) across multiple regions. These findings highlight the need for continuous monitoring and targeted control strategies for cystic echinococcosis, emphasizing the importance of understanding parasite genetic diversity for public health interventions and livestock management in endemic areas. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of the genetic diversity and transmission dynamics of E. granulosus s.s. in Central Asia. Full article

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19 pages, 8901 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Spike-Dependent and ACE2-Independent SARS-CoV-2 Interactions with Salivary Epithelial Cells in the Absence of ACE2

by Caitlynn M. L. Barrows, Thaise C. Geremias, Simon Young and Mary C. Farach-Carson

Biology 2026, 15(10), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100778 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Salivary gland infection by SARS-CoV-2 requires viral entry via routes and mechanisms that remain unresolved. This study examined the expression of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor in salivary tissues and basal cell-derived human salivary progenitor cells (hS/PCs), an unstudied potential entry point [...] Read more.

Salivary gland infection by SARS-CoV-2 requires viral entry via routes and mechanisms that remain unresolved. This study examined the expression of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor in salivary tissues and basal cell-derived human salivary progenitor cells (hS/PCs), an unstudied potential entry point for SARS-CoV-2. Multiple detection modalities, including immunocytochemistry, Western blotting, flow cytometry and RT-PCR, demonstrated a consistent lack of ACE2 protein and transcript in both tissue specimens and primary salivary epithelial cells. Antigen retrieval at pH 9 was determined to be optimal for immunodetection protocols, yet ACE2 remained undetectable. Small intestine tissue served as a positive control, confirming the validity of the methods and reagents we used. Considering there can be other receptors for SARS-CoV-2, flow cytometric analyses demonstrated that recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein failed to bind to salivary epithelial cells, in contrast to HEK293 cells engineered to overexpress ACE2, which showed robust spike binding. Additional studies showed that patient-derived salivary cells, negative for ACE2, are not infected by the SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus, while ACE2-positive cells are readily infected. These findings strongly support our conclusion that salivary cells do not serve as major targets for SARS-CoV-2 infection via ACE2, spike protein, or an alternate receptor. Thus, salivary cells are unlikely major targets for SARS-CoV-2 infection, either through direct exposure to viral particles in ductal fluids or via access to basal cells across the basement membrane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Infection Biology)

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24 pages, 960 KB

Open AccessReview

How Drosophila suzukii Acquires and Interacts with Its Microbiome Across Ecological Contexts

by Hunter Ernstberger, Gabriel Palmieri and Jennifer S. Sun

Biology 2026, 15(10), 777; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100777 (registering DOI) - 13 May 2026

Abstract

Spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii; SWD) has become a globally invasive pest by ovipositing in ripening, intact fruit rather than decaying material, a niche distinct from most other drosophilids. An expanding body of work implicates microbes and microbially derived chemistry as [...] Read more.

Spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii; SWD) has become a globally invasive pest by ovipositing in ripening, intact fruit rather than decaying material, a niche distinct from most other drosophilids. An expanding body of work implicates microbes and microbially derived chemistry as key drivers of this ecology, shaping fly biology across life stages. However, much of this evidence is derived from microbiome surveys and observational comparisons, further constrained by uncontrolled diet history, laboratory rearing, and insufficient ecological context. We examine how the SWD microbiome differs in which taxa are present (composition), how flies pick up those taxa from fruit and maternal sources (acquisition), how long those taxa are retained across life stages (persistence), and how each of these varies with diet, geography, season, and host crops. We then address how microbial cues and fermentation state function as context-dependent drivers of adult attraction, avoidance, and oviposition, and how microbe-mediated interspecific interactions reshape substrate suitability and competition among drosophilids. Throughout, we critically evaluate experimental designs and identify gaps that impede causal inference. These include limited strain-level resolution, incomplete fungal characterization, and weak linkages between microbial community structure and host phenotypes. Key unresolved questions include how SWD maintains performance across diverse hosts, how microbes modulate sensory processing during seasonal shifts, and which microbial metabolites drive attraction, avoidance, and competition. Resolving these questions is a direct prerequisite for field-stable integrated pest management (IPM), including microbially informed behavioral lures, oviposition deterrents derived from pathogen- and competitor-associated volatiles, and competitor-mediated suppression strategies. The experimental priorities identified here translate directly into a roadmap for the next generation of mechanistically grounded, ecologically realistic SWD management tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptation and Evolutionary Dynamics in Insect Gut Microbial Communities)

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13 pages, 1895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fecal ACE and ACE2 Activities Reflect Intestinal Shedding and Microbiota Modulation of Renin–Angiotensin System

by Mariana Ferreira-Duarte, Clara Quintas, Joana Bom, Ana Lúcia Ribeiro, Marília Pereira, Michael Bader, Natalia Alenina, Kenneth E. Bernstein, Ellen A. Bernstein, Teresa Sousa, Fernando Magro, Margarida Duarte-Araújo, Lilian Caroline Gonçalves Oliveira, Dulce Elena Casarini and Manuela Morato

Biology 2026, 15(10), 776; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100776 (registering DOI) - 13 May 2026

Abstract

Angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACE and ACE2) are key components of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) and are present in the gastrointestinal tract and intestinal content, preserving their catalytic activity, and may interact with the gut microbiota. The present study aimed to determine the origin of [...] Read more.

Angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACE and ACE2) are key components of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) and are present in the gastrointestinal tract and intestinal content, preserving their catalytic activity, and may interact with the gut microbiota. The present study aimed to determine the origin of fecal ACE and ACE2 activity. Fecal pellets from germ-free, ACE and ACE2 knockout (KO) mice, and from the corresponding controls were analyzed using fluorimetric enzyme activity assays. ACE activity was assessed using Hippuryl-His-Leu and Z-Phe-His-Leu as substrates; ACE2 activity was assessed using Mca-APK (Dnp), with and without the ACE2 inhibitor MLN-4760. Germ-free mice showed increased fecal ACE and ACE2 activity compared to controls. ACE2-KO mice lacked fecal ACE2 activity, whereas ACE activity was unaffected. In ACE-KO mice, fecal ACE activity was reduced, but not abolished, while ACE2 activity remained similar to controls. In ACE C- and N-domain KO mice, ACE activity was similar to controls, and inhibition with captopril completely abolished fecal ACE activity using Hippuryl-His-Leu, but not Z-Phe-His-Leu, in those animals. These findings indicate that fecal ACE and ACE2 activity results from combined intestinal shedding and microbiota-related mechanisms, supporting a modulatory role of the gut environment on luminal RAAS activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physiology)

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17 pages, 2988 KB

Open AccessArticle

Human Activities and Climate Separately Influence the Global Dispersal and Colonization Potential of Lantana camara L.

by Honglin Guo, Yuanhai Wang, Haohao Wen, Liqun Long, Mu Duan, Yuanxin Wang, Zhaochen Xu, Jingjing Du and Dong Jia

Biology 2026, 15(10), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100775 (registering DOI) - 13 May 2026

Abstract

The global invasion of the shrub L. camara poses a significant threat to ecosystems. Understanding the roles of human activity and climate in driving its spread is crucial for management. This study aimed to quantify its global invasion dynamics, identify key drivers, and [...] Read more.

The global invasion of the shrub L. camara poses a significant threat to ecosystems. Understanding the roles of human activity and climate in driving its spread is crucial for management. This study aimed to quantify its global invasion dynamics, identify key drivers, and predict future distribution shifts. We constructed a high-precision ensemble species distribution model by integrating historical global occurrence records, multi-source environmental variables (climate and human activity indices), and future climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5). The global invasion showed a clear four-stage acceleration pattern (1900–1960, 1961–1980, 1981–2000, and 2001–2025). Variable importance and response curve analysis revealed a two-phase “dispersal–colonization” mechanism: human activities (e.g., gross domestic product) acted as a “dispersal amplifier,” while a climatic factor (isothermality) served as a critical “colonization filter.” Under two future climate scenarios assuming unchanged human activity patterns, the potential suitable habitat of L. camara exhibits structural changes while maintaining stable total area. The highly suitable areas continue to shrink, with nearly half the area lost by the end of the century under the high-emission SSP5-8.5 pathway, while low-suitability zones expand significantly—yet the overall suitable habitat remains stable. Under SSP1-2.6, structural changes in suitable habitats occur more gradually. The study clarifies the distinct roles of human activity and climate in the invasion process, providing a scientific basis for differentiated global risk management strategies targeting dispersal pathways and colonization thresholds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Invasive Alien Plants (2nd Edition))

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25 pages, 3758 KB

Open AccessReview

The Biological Actions and Regulations of Lactic Acid-Linked Histone Lactylation

by Yanli Zhu, Kaiqi Li, Yiting Wang, Yueyao Li, Chuyang Zhu, Cuipeng Zhu, Long Yuan, Ping Hu, Haoyu Liu and Demin Cai

Biology 2026, 15(10), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100774 (registering DOI) - 13 May 2026

Abstract

Once written off as nothing more than a waste product of glycolysis, lactic acid is now seen as a key signaling molecule that operates across a wide range of physiological and pathological processes, from immune regulation and tumor metabolism to neural function. But [...] Read more.

Once written off as nothing more than a waste product of glycolysis, lactic acid is now seen as a key signaling molecule that operates across a wide range of physiological and pathological processes, from immune regulation and tumor metabolism to neural function. But its role goes beyond energy metabolism and cell signaling. Recent studies have uncovered a new type of post-translational modification called histone lactylation, in which lactate itself provides the lactoyl group attached to lysine residues on histones. This modification directly ties a cell’s metabolic state to the epigenetic control of gene expression. For example, histone lactylation helps shift macrophages from a pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype to an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype by fine-tuning gene transcription. In this review, we walk through the discovery and biochemical foundation of histone lactylation; discuss the likely writer and eraser enzymes that manage its dynamic changes; and highlight recent advances in understanding the role of this modification in inflammation, tumorigenesis, neurological disorders, and interactions with gut microbes. We also lay out key unanswered questions and consider why targeting protein lactylation might open up new therapeutic possibilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15 Years of Biology: The View Ahead)

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19 pages, 510 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Multiple Sclerosis Severity and Functional Variants in Key Antioxidant Defense and Ferroptosis-Related Genes

by Tamara Djuric, Jovana Kuveljic, Ana Djordjevic, Milan Stefanovic, Evica Dincic, Mariana Seke, Aleksandra Stankovic and Maja Zivkovic

Biology 2026, 15(10), 773; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100773 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive, inflammatory neurodegenerative disease. Oxidative stress and ferroptosis are implicated in MS pathology, contributing to both inflammation and neurodegeneration. Potentially functional variants in genes related to antioxidant defense and ferroptosis were chosen through an extensive selection process [...] Read more.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive, inflammatory neurodegenerative disease. Oxidative stress and ferroptosis are implicated in MS pathology, contributing to both inflammation and neurodegeneration. Potentially functional variants in genes related to antioxidant defense and ferroptosis were chosen through an extensive selection process to investigate their possible association with the progressive form of MS. The study included 845 MS patients (604 relapsing–remitting (RRMS) and 241 progressive (PMS)). The selected gene variants—GCLC rs572496, GCLM rs2273406, GPX4 rs713041, NQO1 rs1800566 and CAT rs2420388—were genotyped using TaqMan^® technology. mRNA expression levels of the corresponding genes in PBMCs were previously determined by targeted RNA sequencing. Circulatory molecular indicators of antioxidant defense and ferroptosis were quantified using ELISA and colorimetric enzymatic recycling assays. The findings indicate that the GCLC rs572496 variant was significantly associated with MS disease severity and had a significant effect on GCLC mRNA levels. Additionally, the NQO1 rs1800566 variant had a significant effect on NQO1 mRNA expression in PBMCs of MS patients overall. The results suggest further analysis of antioxidant defense and ferroptosis-related gene variants with MS severity and validation of the gained results in larger study groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Epigenetics of Neurological Disorders)

22 pages, 1020 KB

Open AccessReview

Mechanistic Systems Biology of High-Salinity Fermented Seafood: Multi-Omics Integration for Microbial Safety and Quality Prediction

by Mia Yang Ang, Chen Li, Heru Pramono, Teck Yew Low, Nur Azalina Suzianti Feisal, Guat Jah Wong and Siew Woh Choo

Biology 2026, 15(10), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100772 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Foodborne diseases present a serious public health challenge, causing roughly 600 million illnesses and 420,000 deaths annually. A significant portion of this impact is felt in Asia, where traditional fermented and dry-salted seafood, such as katsuobushi, budu, and peda, are [...] Read more.

Foodborne diseases present a serious public health challenge, causing roughly 600 million illnesses and 420,000 deaths annually. A significant portion of this impact is felt in Asia, where traditional fermented and dry-salted seafood, such as katsuobushi, budu, and peda, are dietary staples. These products rely on diverse microbial communities that determine their final safety, flavor, texture, and shelf life. Historically, research has centered on lactic acid bacteria (LAB), yet the functional contributions of non-LAB halotolerant species, including genera like Tetragenococcus, Staphylococcus, and Bacillus, are functionally important in these high-salinity niches. This review evaluates the transition from basic taxonomic surveys to mechanistic multi-omics approaches, integrating genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to decode microbial functionality under selective environmental pressures. We discuss how genomic mining using platforms such as BAGEL4 and antiSMASH can uncover biosynthetic gene clusters and antimicrobial peptides, while CARD supports antimicrobial resistance monitoring. Transcriptomic analysis reveals microbial responses to osmotic stress, low water activity, and pH fluctuations, whereas proteomic profiling links gene expression to active enzymes, stress proteins, and functional biomarkers. Metabolomics captures the chemical outcomes of fermentation, including amino acids, volatile organic compounds, spoilage markers, and biogenic amines. By merging these high-dimensional datasets with artificial intelligence, researchers can move toward predictive modeling that distinguishes biological causation from simple correlation. This shift offers a strategy to improve the safety, consistency, and resilience of traditional high-salinity fermented seafood systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microbiology)

27 pages, 3625 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil-Nutrient Depletion and Microbial Community Restructuring in Continuous Celery Cropping: Opposing Responses of Bacteria and Fungi

by Junkang Sui, Na Wang, Hongliang Wang, Yanjie Li, Junlong Wang, Mengyao Duan, Mei Liao, Yuting Jiang and Xingang Zhou

Biology 2026, 15(10), 771; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100771 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Continuous cropping obstacles represent a major constraint in agricultural production, yet the underlying microbial mechanisms remain incompletely understood. This study systematically compared soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, community composition, and nutrient-microbe relationships between continuous cropping (CC) and non-continuous cropping (CK) celery rhizospheres using [...] Read more.

Continuous cropping obstacles represent a major constraint in agricultural production, yet the underlying microbial mechanisms remain incompletely understood. This study systematically compared soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, community composition, and nutrient-microbe relationships between continuous cropping (CC) and non-continuous cropping (CK) celery rhizospheres using high-throughput sequencing, soil physicochemical analysis, and Mantel tests. The results revealed that CC soils exhibited severe depletion of available potassium (AK, 69.9% decreased) and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AN, 65.9% decreased), accompanied by a modest but statistically significant accumulation of total phosphorus (TP, 8.0% increased). Strikingly, bacterial and fungal communities displayed diametrically opposed diversity responses: CC significantly reduced bacterial α-diversity (Shannon: 5.66 vs. 6.67, p < 0.01) and richness (ACE: 2018 vs. 2623, p < 0.01), whereas fungal diversity and richness more than doubled under CC (ACE: 619 vs. 296, p < 0.01; Shannon: 4.13 vs. 3.34, p < 0.01). β-diversity analyses (NMDS and ANOSIM) confirmed fundamental community restructuring in CC soils for both microbial domains. At the taxonomic level, CC soils showed significant depletion of beneficial plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), including Bacillus (↓89.3%), Mesobacillus (↓72.8%), and Pseudomonas (↓30.8%), coupled with dramatic enrichment of the phytopathogenic genus Fusarium (10.9-fold increase, 8.81% vs. 0.81%, p < 0.001). LEfSe analysis identified Fusarium, Arrhenia, and Mortierella as specific biomarkers of CC soils, whereas Bacillus, Mesobacillus, Cladosporium, and Alternaria were biomarkers of CK soils. Mantel tests further revealed that CC significantly altered nutrient-microbe coupling relationships, with bacterial communities significantly correlated with TP, AN, and OC, and fungal communities with TP, TK, AP, and AN. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that continuous celery cropping shifts the rhizosphere microbiome from a bacterial-dominated profile associated with beneficial taxa (e.g., Bacillus, Pseudomonas) toward a fungal-enriched profile dominated by the pathogen Fusarium, suggesting a potential transition from a putatively disease-suppressive to a disease-conducive microbial state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria: Mechanisms and Applications)

11 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unlocking Seed Dormancy and Elucidating Storage Behavior in Morinda royoc (Rubiaceae): Crucial Insights for Propagation and Ex Situ Germplasm Conservation

by Duniel Barrios and Ricardo Álvarez-Espino

Biology 2026, 15(10), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100770 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Morinda royoc L. is a shrub with high pharmacological value due to its antimicrobial and metabolic bioactivity. However, its low germination limits its commercial use and conservation. This study characterized the morphophysiology of its diaspores, evaluated pre-germination treatments (mechanical endocarp removal and GA [...] Read more.

Morinda royoc L. is a shrub with high pharmacological value due to its antimicrobial and metabolic bioactivity. However, its low germination limits its commercial use and conservation. This study characterized the morphophysiology of its diaspores, evaluated pre-germination treatments (mechanical endocarp removal and GA₃ soaking at 600 and 1200 ppm), and determined its storage behavior. The analyses showed a highly significant effect where manual endocarp removal overcame mechanical restriction and eliminated dormancy, achieving 100% germination within two weeks, whereas the control reached only 51.5% after 23 weeks. Treatments with GA₃ did not improve germination compared to the control, and an inhibitory effect was observed at 1200 ppm, although 100% of the non-germinated embryos remained viable. The seeds maintain viability above 90% after three months of storage at 25, 5, and −20 °C. Our findings suggest that M. royoc seeds exhibit orthodox behavior (tolerant to desiccation and freezing) and non-deep physiological dormancy. This study documents, for the first time, a method for the complete release of dormancy in the species, which is essential for successful propagation. Our results provide a rapid and economical germination method that facilitates mass propagation, establishing the technical basis for the transition toward commercial-scale cultivation and ensuring the effective conservation of M. royoc germplasm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Science)

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24 pages, 1230 KB

Open AccessReview

A Transcription Factor-Centric View of Transcription Regulation

by Jing He, Jiahui Chi and Siqian Feng

Biology 2026, 15(10), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100769 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Transcription is arguably the most critical regulatory step in gene expression. In eukaryotes, a promoter is necessary for transcription, but it alone often does not lead to significant gene transcription. Distal regulatory elements called enhancers can greatly increase transcription levels. Sequence-specific transcription factors [...] Read more.

Transcription is arguably the most critical regulatory step in gene expression. In eukaryotes, a promoter is necessary for transcription, but it alone often does not lead to significant gene transcription. Distal regulatory elements called enhancers can greatly increase transcription levels. Sequence-specific transcription factors recruited to the enhancers play pivot roles in regulating promoter activities. These enhancer-bound transcription factors represent a central node in biological regulation, by converting various internal and external regulatory signals into biological responses in the form of target gene transcription. In this review, we take a transcription factor-centric view, and summarize recent advances in our understanding of how transcription factors regulate promoter activities. We also highlight significant outstanding questions in the field, and propose possible strategies to solve these questions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transcriptional Regulation in Eukaryotes)

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17 pages, 2031 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Differentiation and Driving Mechanisms of Nekton Community Diversity in Eastern Guangdong Coastal Waters, Northern South China Sea

by Yang Li, Mai Tong, Xi Zheng, Que-Hui Tang, Yan-Ping Zhang, Yu-Song Guo, Zhong-Duo Wang and Jian Liao

Biology 2026, 15(10), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100768 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Coastal waters of eastern Guangdong are important fishing grounds and ecologically sensitive areas in the northern South China Sea, where nekton communities are increasingly affected by environmental heterogeneity and human activities. However, systematic studies on the spatial differentiation and driving mechanisms of nekton [...] Read more.

Coastal waters of eastern Guangdong are important fishing grounds and ecologically sensitive areas in the northern South China Sea, where nekton communities are increasingly affected by environmental heterogeneity and human activities. However, systematic studies on the spatial differentiation and driving mechanisms of nekton communities in this region remain insufficient. This study aimed to clarify the community structure, diversity distribution characteristics, and key driving environmental factors of nekton in the coastal waters of eastern Guangdong, and thereby provide scientific support for an ecological health assessment and sustainable utilization of fishery resources in this region. Based on bottom-trawl survey data from 19 stations in the coastal waters of eastern Guangdong, northern South China Sea, this study systematically analyzed the species composition, dominant species, and diversity distribution pattern of nekton and their correlations with environmental factors using methods including the Index of Relative Importance, Alpha diversity indices, Beta diversity indices, and redundancy analysis. A total of 119 nekton species belonging to three phyla, four classes, 14 orders, and 56 families were collected. Among them, there were 79 fish species (accounting for 66.39%), 36 crustacean species (30.25%), and four cephalopod species (3.36%). The dominant species were Trachypenaeus curvirostris and Portunus sanguinolentus (IRI ≥ 1000). Wilcoxon’s test showed that there were significant differences in the Shannon–Wiener index, Gini–Simpson index, and Pielou’s evenness between the nearshore and offshore groups, while no significant regional difference was observed in the richness index. Cluster analysis, based on the Bray–Curtis distance, divided the 19 stations into five clusters, with significant differentiation in species composition and functional structure within the nearshore group. RDA results indicated that environmental factors collectively explained 99.66% of the variation in community structure. Particulate Inorganic Carbon (PIC), Phosphate (PO₄³⁻), Distance to Port, Summer Maximum Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), and Total Suspended Matter (TSM) were identified as the key driving factors. The coastal waters of eastern Guangdong boast rich nekton species, with significant differences in community structure between nearshore and offshore areas. The heterogeneity of the natural environment and human activity disturbances jointly shape the nekton diversity pattern in this region. The research results can provide a theoretical basis for regional marine ecological protection and fishery resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Conservation Biology and Biodiversity)

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19 pages, 583 KB

Open AccessArticle

Appraisal of a Hypothesis on Embryo Fusion and Individuation

by Francis J. O’Keeffe and George L. Mendz

Biology 2026, 15(10), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100767 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Aim: Human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells are known as tetragametic individuals. This trait is thought to arise from the fusion of two embryos. This investigation into the hypothesised fusion potential of two embryos was conducted to appraise whether embryo [...] Read more.

Aim: Human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells are known as tetragametic individuals. This trait is thought to arise from the fusion of two embryos. This investigation into the hypothesised fusion potential of two embryos was conducted to appraise whether embryo fusion is a correct explanation for tetragametic chimerism and an appropriate basis for legislation governing human embryo experimentation. Materials: The reported hypotheses to explain embryo fusion. Fifty documented instances of human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells scattered throughout the body. Data from studies of sesquizygotic twins with key information describing embryos with two genetically different types of cells. Methods: The development of the embryo fusion hypotheses was examined. The correctness of three hypotheses of embryo fusion was appraised. Multiple reports of tetragametic human beings were reviewed. In each case, the maternal component of the genetically different cells was analysed to ascertain the presence of identical or dissimilar contributions to the embryo genome and thus establish whether one or more oocytes were fertilised. An investigation of sesquizygotic twinning was employed to assess the possibility of dispermic fertilisation generating tetragametic individuals. Results and Conclusions: The embryo fusion hypotheses have not been demonstrated, and their analyses suggest that they propose highly unlikely/impossible biological events. Individuals with identical maternal contributions incorrectly were assumed to originate from the fusion of embryos. Sesquizygosis is a plausible mechanism by which a human embryo comprised of two genetically different types of cells could be generated. Full article

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17 pages, 13151 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Reproductive Trait-Associated Loci and Candidate Genes in Commercial Pigs via 50K SNP Genotyping and Genome-Wide Association Study

by Wenwu Chen, Fang Yang, Yantong Chen, Sui Liufu, Kaiming Wang, Zhi Li and Haiming Ma

Biology 2026, 15(10), 766; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100766 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

To unravel the genetic basis of economically critical reproductive traits in swine, we genotyped 839 sows from three commercial breeds (Duroc, Landrace, Yorkshire) using the Porcine Breeding Chip_plus 50K SNP array, and analyzed three key traits: total number born (TNB), number born alive [...] Read more.

To unravel the genetic basis of economically critical reproductive traits in swine, we genotyped 839 sows from three commercial breeds (Duroc, Landrace, Yorkshire) using the Porcine Breeding Chip_plus 50K SNP array, and analyzed three key traits: total number born (TNB), number born alive (NBA), and number of healthy piglets (NHP). We integrated principal component analysis (PCA) for population structure, runs of homozygosity (ROH) detection, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and GO/KEGG enrichment analysis. Phenotypically, Yorkshire sows exhibited superior and persistent reproductive capacity across parities 1–7 (peak TNB: 14.17 ± 2.82 at parity 4 based on N ≥ 3 data), Duroc sows had limited data with only parity 1 available (TNB: 9.44 ± 2.13), and Landrace sows showed moderate to high performance across parities 1–4 and 7, with peak TNB at parity 4 (17.08 ± 4.61). ROH analysis further revealed that short ROH fragments (1–5 Mb) were the most abundant category across breeds, while the majority of detected ROH were under 10 Mb in length. GWAS identified significant SNPs concentrated on chromosomes 1 and 2, and annotated candidate genes including AMH (ovarian reserve), IZUMO4 (embryo implantation), ACSBG2 (steroid synthesis), RFX2 (follicular maturation), and DOT1L (embryonic development). GO/KEGG enrichment highlighted pathways such as “histone methyltransferase activity” and “fatty acid biosynthesis”, which are critical for reproductive processes. This study clarifies breed-specific reproductive patterns and identifies key genetic loci/genes for porcine reproductive traits, providing molecular markers and a theoretical basis for improving swine reproductive performance via molecular breeding. Full article

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27 pages, 1936 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Multitaxon Indices of Biotic Integrity for Aquatic Ecosystem Health Assessment in Dongjiang Lake

by Yu Wang, Meiyu Hou, Hanbing Li, Rui Wang, Xin Zhou, Liangjing Zhang, Qiang Zhou and Rui Meng

Biology 2026, 15(10), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100765 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Three locally calibrated Indices of Biotic Integrity (IBIs) based on macroinvertebrates (B-IBI), zooplankton (Z-IBI), and phytoplankton (P-IBI) were developed to characterize relative aquatic ecological condition at impaired sites in Dongjiang Lake, a deep reservoir-type lake in China, during 2021–2023. Using synchronous monitoring data, [...] Read more.

Three locally calibrated Indices of Biotic Integrity (IBIs) based on macroinvertebrates (B-IBI), zooplankton (Z-IBI), and phytoplankton (P-IBI) were developed to characterize relative aquatic ecological condition at impaired sites in Dongjiang Lake, a deep reservoir-type lake in China, during 2021–2023. Using synchronous monitoring data, candidate metrics for the three biotic groups were screened and assembled by integrating taxonomic diversity, community composition, pollution-tolerance attributes, trophic indicators, and functional feeding groups. Metric values were standardized using a linear transformation, and site conditions were classified using a unified five-class grading scheme under the present local calibration framework. A total of 327 taxonomic units (species or morphospecies) were recorded across the three biotic groups, indicating relatively high biodiversity in the study area. Under the present locally calibrated framework, most impaired sites were classified within the moderate-to-good range, with clear interannual variation and spatial heterogeneity. Upstream and downstream sections showed greater fluctuations in IBI classes than the lake area. The macroinvertebrate-based IBI was more sensitive to long-term and cumulative habitat disturbance, whereas the zooplankton- and phytoplankton-based IBIs responded more rapidly to short-term variation in nutrients and water quality. Together, these results indicate that multitaxon IBIs can provide complementary information on relative ecological condition within Dongjiang Lake and may support ecological zoning, pollutant management, and restoration prioritization in similar deep reservoir-type lake systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioural Biology)

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20 pages, 12428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antagonistic Activity and Molecular Insights into the Biocontrol of Korla Pear Fire Blight by Paenibacillus sp. TRMB57781

by Xirui Wang, Chaowen Liu, Jinduo Zhao, Yuxin Si, Zagipa Sapakhova, Jiangtao Gao and Xiaoxia Luo

Biology 2026, 15(10), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100764 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Pear fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora necessitates environmentally friendly biocontrol alternatives. Strain TRMB57781, isolated from Alar chemical plant wastewater, was identified as Paenibacillus sp. via polyphasic taxonomy and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a biosynthetic gene cluster for fusaricidin B. [...] Read more.

Pear fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora necessitates environmentally friendly biocontrol alternatives. Strain TRMB57781, isolated from Alar chemical plant wastewater, was identified as Paenibacillus sp. via polyphasic taxonomy and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a biosynthetic gene cluster for fusaricidin B. Fermentation medium optimization with glucose and cottonseed meal significantly enhanced antibacterial activity. In vitro assays demonstrated that a 1:50 dilution of the fermentation broth achieved 84.62% control efficacy on fragrant pear inflorescences, markedly exceeding agricultural streptomycin (69.48%). Comparable efficacy to streptomycin was observed in detached leaf assays and potted plant protective and curative trials. Through HR-TOF MS analysis combined with genomic verification, the active compound was identified as a key antimicrobial metabolite associated with the antagonism against E. amylovora. This study presents Paenibacillus sp. TRMB57781 as a promising biocontrol agent and provides genomic and metabolomic insights into its antibacterial activity against pear fire blight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Microbial Biology)

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13 pages, 7051 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut Microbiota Mediates Host Responses to Microplastic Exposure in Artemia salina

by Ruying Ma, Huiru Lu, Shisong Zhang, Hongli Ji, Fengjie Xin and Gang Wang

Biology 2026, 15(10), 763; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100763 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Microplastics, derived from plastic degradation and industrial sources, are widely detected in aquatic environments and food systems, posing increasing environmental and ecological risks. Aims: This study aimed to investigate how microplastics affect host physiology and gut microbiota, as well as determine whether [...] Read more.

Background: Microplastics, derived from plastic degradation and industrial sources, are widely detected in aquatic environments and food systems, posing increasing environmental and ecological risks. Aims: This study aimed to investigate how microplastics affect host physiology and gut microbiota, as well as determine whether microbiota changes actively modulate host responses. Methods: Using A. salina as a model organism, we combined physiological assays, oxidative stress analysis, gut microbiome profiling, and bacterial functional validation under chronic polystyrene microplastics exposure. Results: Polystyrene microplastics accumulated in the gut and significantly impaired growth and survival, accompanied by reduced digestive enzyme activity and immune function, as well as increased oxidative stress, indicating disruption of physiological homeostasis. Microplastic exposure also induced microbial dysbiosis, characterized by decreased diversity and compositional shifts. Functional assays demonstrated that a bacterium enriched under exposure, Pseudomonas knackmussii, partially restored host growth and physiological functions while reducing oxidative stress. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that gut microbiota are not only altered by microplastic exposure but also actively modulate host responses to environmental stress, providing new insight into microbiota-mediated resilience under pollutant stress. Full article

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11 pages, 3569 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Pitfall Trap Spacing on Sample Independence in Ant Community Studies in Homogeneous Grasslands (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

by Francisco Jiménez-Carmona, Soledad Carpintero and Joaquín L. Reyes-López

Biology 2026, 15(10), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100762 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

The spacing between traps is one of the variables that can influence pitfall-trapping results. Very short distances between traps could cause pseudoreplication, which means that samples are not statistically independent. In this study, we evaluated how trap spacing affects the similarity in the [...] Read more.

The spacing between traps is one of the variables that can influence pitfall-trapping results. Very short distances between traps could cause pseudoreplication, which means that samples are not statistically independent. In this study, we evaluated how trap spacing affects the similarity in the composition and abundance of ant communities in two homogeneous grasslands sampled with pitfall traps separated by 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, or 40 m. The results show that dissimilarity between the samples increases progressively with the distance between traps and that, in general, from 5 m onwards, the samples tend to be more independent of each other. These findings suggest that, in homogeneous grasslands, a distance of 5 m between pitfall traps may serve as a practical reference to reduce pseudoreplication. However, the independence threshold between samples should not be generalized directly to more heterogeneous ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecology)

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