Biologics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are increasingly recognized as mediators of intercellular communication and as potential therapeutic and diagnostic platforms. In the ocular surface and anterior segment, EVs are released by epithelial, stromal, endothelial, immune, and aqueous outflow-related cells and are also detectable in tears and aqueous humor. Experimental studies suggest that EVs may promote corneal epithelial repair, modulate local immune responses, reduce stromal fibrosis, and participate in extracellular matrix regulation within the trabecular meshwork. In parallel, mesenchymal stromal cell-derived EVs are being investigated as cell-free therapeutics, while engineered EVs and EV–lipid hybrid systems may facilitate the delivery of nucleic acids and other therapeutic cargo to anterior segment tissues. Tear- and aqueous humor-derived EV preparations have also yielded candidate molecular signatures for ocular surface disease, glaucoma, and selected systemic disorders. However, much of the current evidence remains preclinical or exploratory. Reported effects are frequently based on conditioned medium, EV-enriched fractions, or incompletely characterized preparations, making it difficult to distinguish EV-specific activity from that of the broader secretome. Biomarker studies are additionally limited by small cohorts, low sample volumes, non-vesicular contaminants, and methodological heterogeneity. This review summarizes the biological roles, therapeutic applications, drug-delivery potential, and diagnostic use of EVs in anterior segment medicine. Particular emphasis is placed on the strength of EV-specific evidence, the limitations of extrapolating from non-ocular models, and the methodological, manufacturing, and regulatory requirements for clinical translation. EVs represent a promising interface between anterior segment biology, precision diagnosis, and targeted therapy, but rigorous characterization and comparative validation remain essential.

Background/Objectives: Conventional cancer treatments such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery often severely reduce a patient’s quality of life due to their side effects. This underscores the urgent need to develop less toxic and more effective alternative therapies. Medicinal plants and their derivatives represent a valuable source for discovering such agents. In this study, we investigated the anticancer and antibacterial properties of ethanolic (EE), methanolic (ME), and aqueous (AE) leaf extracts from the Lebanese Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Methods: The cytotoxicity of the extracts and cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP) was evaluated using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay against four human cancer cell lines: two breast cancer lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), colorectal carcinoma cells (HCT-116), and lung carcinoma epithelial cells (A-549). Morphological changes in the cells were observed via inverted phase-contrast microscopy. The antibacterial potential was determined through minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) broth microdilution assays, agar well diffusion, and time-kill tests. The antibiofilm activity of the extracts against Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Streptococcus intermedius, Escherichia coli, and Leclercia adecarboxylata was assessed using antibiofilm screening. Results: All three extracts demonstrated significant anticancer activity against the four cell lines, with particular potency against A-549 cells. The AE showed the greatest cytotoxic effect, with IC50 values ranging from 97.1 to 163.3 µg/mL after 24 h of treatment. Furthermore, all extracts induced notable morphological changes in the cancer cells. The MIC and MBC results indicated a bactericidal effect for the EE (MBC range: 1.5625–50%), ME (MBC range: 6.25–50%), and AE (MBC range: 3.125–100%). Agar well diffusion assays revealed inhibition zones of 8.1 to 20.1 mm, while time-kill tests showed bacterial inhibition within 1 to 24 h of incubation. The antibiofilm assays demonstrated that the extracts inhibited biofilm production and eradicated 50% of pre-formed biofilms. Conclusions: These findings suggest that Lebanese Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaf extracts are a promising source of bioactive compounds with both antibacterial and anticancer properties.

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (EVs) generated through the endosomal pathway that mediate intercellular communication by transferring proteins, lipids, and regulatory RNAs. In parallel, the NLRP3 inflammasome is a key signaling platform of the innate immune system that integrates cellular stress signals to drive inflammatory responses. Recent studies suggest that exosome biology and NLRP3 signaling intersect at fundamental levels of cell organization. On one hand, inflammasome activation can promote exosome biogenesis and secretion through caspase-1-dependent remodeling of intracellular trafficking, including cleavage of Rab-interacting lysosomal protein (RILP) and redistribution of multivesicular bodies (MVBs). These processes influence the selective loading of exosomal cargo, notably miRNAs, through sequence-dependent mechanisms involving RNA-binding proteins and the endosomal sorting machinery. Conversely, exosomes can modulate inflammasome activity in recipient cells by delivering regulatory molecules that affect NLRP3 priming and signaling. Although exosome release is increased in several inflammatory disorders, including ischemia/reperfusion injury, diabetes and neurodegenerative disease, the mechanistic relationship between exosome pathways and NLRP3 remains incompletely understood. In addition to their pathogenic and diagnostic relevance, exosomes are increasingly being explored as innovative acellular biologics and therapeutic delivery platforms due to their immunomodulatory and regenerative properties. In particular, mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes have shown promising anti-inflammatory effects through modulation of NLRP3 pathways in preclinical models of kidney, cardiovascular, neurological and inflammatory diseases. Here, we review current evidence connecting NLRP3 inflammasome activation to EV trafficking, exosome formation, and cargo selection, and discuss how exosome-mediated communication shapes inflammasome signaling across cells and tissues in health and disease.