Submit to Batteries Review for Batteries Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Circular Battery Technologies

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Keywords
Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue
Published Papers

A special issue of Batteries (ISSN 2313-0105).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 October 2022) | Viewed by 135952

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Burçak Ebin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Industrial Materials Recycling, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 4, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Interests: batteries; recycling; supercritical fluid; pyrometallurgy; PV recycling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Martina Petranikova

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Industrial Materials Recycling, Chalmers University of Technology, Kemivägen 4, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
Interests: batteries; recycling; solvent extraction; hydrometallurgy; industrial waste
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The supply and management of energy are at the center of our daily concerns and represent a socio-economic priority. The increasing concern on global warming enforces the states and companies to concentrate on renewable energy sources to reduce the carbon footprint of energy production/consumption. The energy storage technology is the key player in this rapid change “modern time revolution”. Battery systems should store surplus electricity from the smart grid for hours, days, and even weeks, if necessary, because electricity generation from renewable sources fluctuates with weather conditions, Likewise, the replacement of internal combustion cars by electric vehicles to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and to limit our dependence towards fossil fuels stimulate the search for energy storage devices including batteries, fuel cells, electrolysis for hydrogen production, pumped-storage power plants, etc. Thus the energy storage devices have been attracting enormous attention due to not only developments in the electronics industry, but also entering the electric vehicles to the market and the necessity of effective renewable energy applications.

Many electrochemical storage technologies have been developed since the first lead-acid battery invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté. Over the last two decades, the rapid progress in battery technologies has directly affected modern life, not only through various applications, but also with energy and carbon footprints of their production and manufacturing, from mining to end-of-life product management. Each technology finds its place depending on its applications. For instance, alkaline batteries are largely used for small home electronics because this technology is economical and safe. After the marketing of Li-ion batteries, the technology had been slowly dominated the most of battery applications from small electronics to vehicle technology and to stationary energy storage fields. Although battery technologies are mature, there are still many challenges to be faced in the development of performance, safe and sustainable technologies for dedicated applications. Increasing demand to the batteries triggered significant new problems, which are organizing sustainable raw material supply and how we will handle increasing battery waste amounts. A good balance must be found between battery performance, safety and recycling ability, as well as reliable raw material supply.

The following topics will be addressed in the Special Issue: Raw materials for battery technologies, electrolytes, electrode materials, design and development, applications (stationary batteries, electrified transportation, and smart grids), collection and regulation, secondary life and recycling.

Therefore, this Special Issue will gather, for the second time, contributions from several different communities: Electrochemistry, battery manufacturers, material science, engineering processes, extractive metallurgy, recycling, and Life Cycle Assessment.

Dr. Burcak Ebin
Dr. Martina Petranikova
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Batteries is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Electrochemistry
Electrode materials
Electrolyte
Battery design
Battery manufacturing
Spent battery collection
Secondary life - reuse Extractive metallurgy
Recycling
Life Cycle Assessment

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Ease of navigation: Grouping papers by topic helps scholars navigate broad scope journals more efficiently.
Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
Expansion of research network: Special Issues facilitate connections among authors, fostering scientific collaborations.
External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
e-Book format: Special Issues with more than 10 articles can be published as dedicated e-books, ensuring wide and rapid dissemination.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (10 papers)

Download All Papers

Order results

Result details

Show export options Show export options

Select all

Export citation of selected articles as:

Research

Jump to: Review

26 pages, 10274 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Combined Hydro-Mechanical and Pyrometallurgical Recycling Approach to Recover Valuable Metals from Lithium-Ion Batteries Avoiding Lithium Slagging

by Alexandra Holzer, Jörg Zimmermann, Lukas Wiszniewski, Tobias Necke, Christoph Gatschlhofer, Wolfgang Öfner and Harald Raupenstrauch

Batteries 2023, 9(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9010015 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3736

Abstract

Meeting the increasing demand for energy storage based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) is not only a question of resource availability but also an issue of resource conservation and efficient recycling management. In this respect, sustainable recycling concepts play a central role in mindful interactions with valuable materials. Based on this approach, a process interconnection of hydromechanical preparation, flotation, and pyrometallurgical treatment was investigated. The hydromechanical preparation showed promising results in achieving highly pure mixtures of LIB-active material. It was found that a pre-opening step could achieve an even better separation of impurities for downstream processes such as Cu and Al to avoid excessive particle size reduction. According to an optimized mixing stage during flotation, the C amount was reduced from 33 wt.% to 19.23 wt.%. A Li-free metal alloy was obtained through the subsequent pyrometallurgical treatment, and evidence for Li removal via the gas phase was provided. Furthermore, heating microscope trials confirmed the results of the process interconnection and showed that further optimization steps for the pre-treatment are necessary for favorable product quality. Therefore, a high-stratification plot was created, which allows a quick future statement about the suitability of the input material for use in the process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lead Acid Batteries (LABs) Closed-Loop Supply Chain: The Brazilian Case

by Gabriela Scur, Claudia Mattos, Wilson Hilsdorf and Marcelo Armelin

Batteries 2022, 8(10), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100139 - 22 Sep 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5605

Abstract

In the circular economy, a closed-loop supply chain is essential to guarantee the logistics of raw materials to the correct destination of the end-of-life (EOL) product. This is magnified by hazardous products that can contaminate the environment, such as lead, as well as the people involved in their production processes. Through an exploratory study of multiple cases, we analyzed the Brazilian lead-based vehicle battery chain by investigating two main manufacturers, two recycling companies, and eight distributors/retailers. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between the actors in the lead acid battery chain and identify the mechanisms that induce recycling programs, and to propose an explanatory framework. The results indicate that although the sustainability strategies of OEMs are implemented by regulatory mechanisms, the impacts of these strategies cascade among all agents in the supply chain, promoting a convergence between actions and relationships between actors from the perspective of the triple bottom line, highlighting variables for each dimension (economic, social, and environmental). The study contributes to the consolidation of the triple bottom line concepts in the lead acid battery production chain and presents managerial implications for sustainability management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 3156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Unit Made of Cylindrical Cells

by Morena Falcone, Nicolò Federico Quattromini, Claudio Rossi and Beatrice Pulvirenti

Batteries 2022, 8(8), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080076 - 25 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6507

Abstract

Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to evaluate the energy demand and the emissions associated with products’ life cycles. In this work, an LCA analysis of an existent lithium-ion battery pack (BP) unit is presented with the aim to increase awareness about its consumption and offering alternative production solutions that are less energy intensive. Exploiting the literature data about cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-gate investigations, and after establishing reasonable approximations, the main BP sub-elements were considered for this study, such as the plastic cells support, the Li-ion cells brick, the PCBs for a battery management system (BMS), the liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) and the BP container. For each of these components, the impacts of the extraction, processing, assembly, and transportation of raw materials are estimated and the partial and total values of the energy demand (ED) and global warming potential (GWP) are determined. The final interpretation of the results allows one to understand the important role played by LCA evaluations and presents other possible ways of reducing the energy consumption and

C O_{2}

emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

9 pages, 1336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attention-Based Long Short-Term Memory Recurrent Neural Network for Capacity Degradation of Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Tadele Mamo and Fu-Kwun Wang

Batteries 2021, 7(4), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7040066 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3411

Abstract

Monitoring cycle life can provide a prediction of the remaining battery life. To improve the prediction accuracy of lithium-ion battery capacity degradation, we propose a hybrid long short-term memory recurrent neural network model with an attention mechanism. The hyper-parameters of the proposed model are also optimized by a differential evolution algorithm. Using public battery datasets, the proposed model is compared to some published models, and it gives better prediction performance in terms of mean absolute percentage error and root mean square error. In addition, the proposed model can achieve higher prediction accuracy of battery end of life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 4361 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A Parametric Approach

by Nelson Bunyui Manjong, Lorenzo Usai, Odne Stokke Burheim and Anders Hammer Strømman

Batteries 2021, 7(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030057 - 24 Aug 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9876

Abstract

Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO₂e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO₂e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Influencing the Formation of Sodium Hydroxide by an Ion Exchange Membrane Cell

by Jimmy Aurelio Rosales-Huamani, Juan Taumaturgo Medina-Collana, Zoila Margarita Diaz-Cordova and Jorge Alberto Montaño-Pisfil

Batteries 2021, 7(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7020034 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8807

Abstract

The present study aimed to evaluate the factors that influence the formation of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by means of an electrolytic cell with ion exchange membranes. To achieve this experiment, the NaOH production cell had to be designed and built inexpensively, using graphite electrodes. The operational parameters in our study were: initial NaOH concentration, applied voltage, and temperature. All experiments were carried out using model NaCl solutions with a concentration of 40 g/L for 150 min. The results of the experiment were that the NaOH concentration, conductivity, and pH presented an increasing linear trend with the electrolysis time. Finally, it was possible to obtain the efficiency level of the electric current in our investigation, which was an average of 80.2%, that indicated good performance of the built cell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 6153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Battery Scrap and Biochar Utilization for Improved Metal Recoveries in Nickel Slag Cleaning Conditions

by Katri Avarmaa, Marko Järvenpää, Lassi Klemettinen, Miikka Marjakoski, Pekka Taskinen, Daniel Lindberg and Ari Jokilaakso

Batteries 2020, 6(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6040058 - 2 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4478

Abstract

Cobalt is a critical, high-value metal used extensively in batteries and other sustainable technologies. To secure its supply in future, it is utmost important to recover cobalt efficiently from industrial wastes and recycled End-of-Life batteries. This study aims at finding ways to improve the reduction of cobalt as well as valuable metals nickel and copper in nickel slag cleaning furnace conditions by using both traditional fossil-based coke and a more sustainable option, low-CO₂ footprint biochar, as reductants. A cobalt-rich fraction of battery scrap (25.5 wt% Co) was also used as a secondary feed. The experimental technique consisted of reduction experiments with different times at 1400 °C under inert atmosphere, quick quenching and Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis. The use of biochar resulted in faster reaction kinetics in the reduction process, compared to coke. Moreover, the presence of battery scrap had a clear impact on the behavior and reduction kinetics of the elements and/or enhanced settling and separation of matte and slag. The addition of scrap increased notably the distribution coefficients of the valuable metals but consequently also the iron concentration in matte which is the thermodynamic constraint of the slag cleaning process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Behavior of Battery Metals Lithium, Cobalt, Manganese and Lanthanum in Black Copper Smelting

by Anna Dańczak, Lassi Klemettinen, Matti Kurhila, Pekka Taskinen, Daniel Lindberg and Ari Jokilaakso

Batteries 2020, 6(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010016 - 2 Mar 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7963

Abstract

Recycling of metals from different waste streams must be increased in the near future for securing the availability of metals that are critical for high-tech applications, such as batteries for e-mobility. Black copper smelting is a flexible recycling route for many different types of scrap, including Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and some end-of-life energy storage materials. Fundamental thermodynamic data about the behavior of battery metals and the effect of slag additives is required for providing data necessary for process development, control, and optimization. The goal of our study is to investigate the suitability of black copper smelting process for recycling of battery metals lithium, cobalt, manganese, and lanthanum. The experiments were performed alumina crucibles at 1300 °C, in oxygen partial pressure range of 10⁻¹¹–10⁻⁸ atm. The slags studied contained 0 to 6 wt% of MgO. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) techniques were utilized for phase composition quantifications. The results reveal that most cobalt can be recovered into the copper alloy in extremely reducing process conditions, whereas lithium, manganese, and lanthanum deport predominantly in the slag at all investigated oxygen partial pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

15 pages, 846 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Achieved Purities after Li-ion Batteries Hydrometallurgical Treatment and Impurities Effects on the Cathode Performance

by Olimpia A. Nasser and Martina Petranikova

Batteries 2021, 7(3), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030060 - 3 Sep 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7573

Abstract

This paper is a product purity study of recycled Li-ion batteries with a focus on hydrometallurgical recycling processes. Firstly, a brief description of the current recycling status was presented based on the research data. Moreover, this work presented the influence of impurities such as Cu, Fe and Mg on recovered cathode materials performance. The impact of the impurities was described depending on their form (metallic or ionic) and concentration. This work also reviewed hydrometallurgical recycling processes depending on the recovered material, obtained purity and recovery methods. This purity data were obtained from both research and battery industry actors. Finally, the purity study was completed by collecting data regarding commercial battery-grade chemical compounds and active lithium cathode materials, including required purity levels and allowed impurity limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

33 pages, 3465 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective

by Omar Velázquez-Martínez, Johanna Valio, Annukka Santasalo-Aarnio, Markus Reuter and Rodrigo Serna-Guerrero

Batteries 2019, 5(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040068 - 5 Nov 2019

Cited by 356 | Viewed by 74940

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, only a limited number of LIBs undergo any recycling treatment, with the majority go to landfills or being hoarded in households. Further losses of LIB components occur because the the state-of-the-art LIB recycling processes are limited to components with high economic value, e.g., Co, Cu, Fe, and Al. With the increasing popularity of concepts such as “circular economy” (CE), new LIB recycling systems have been proposed that target a wider spectrum of compounds, thus reducing the environmental impact associated with LIB production. This review work presents a discussion of the current practices and some of the most promising emerging technologies for recycling LIBs. While other authoritative reviews have focused on the description of recycling processes, the aim of the present was is to offer an analysis of recycling technologies from a CE perspective. Consequently, the discussion is based on the ability of each technology to recover every component in LIBs. The gathered data depicted a direct relationship between process complexity and the variety and usability of the recovered fractions. Indeed, only processes employing a combination of mechanical processing, and hydro- and pyrometallurgical steps seemed able to obtain materials suitable for LIB (re)manufacture. On the other hand, processes relying on pyrometallurgical steps are robust, but only capable of recovering metallic components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)

► Show Figures

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Circular Battery Technologies

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI