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21 pages, 9153 KB

Open AccessArticle

Weed Detection: Innovative Hyperspectral Image Analysis for Classification and Band Selection of Site-Specific and Selective Weeding Robot

by Asi Lazar, Inbar Meir, Ran Nisim Lati and Avital Bechar

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2576; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112576 - 9 Nov 2025

Viewed by 477

Abstract

Weeding in melon and watermelon fields requires selective and pinpoint operation because the crop plants are sensitive to herbicides and tend to grow on the ground in all directions. Hyperspectral images have high spectral and spatial resolution, enabling an object’s classification according to [...] Read more.

Weeding in melon and watermelon fields requires selective and pinpoint operation because the crop plants are sensitive to herbicides and tend to grow on the ground in all directions. Hyperspectral images have high spectral and spatial resolution, enabling an object’s classification according to its spectral properties. Spectral band selection is a common practice with hyperspectral images, as it reduces the number of bands in use with only a minor effect on the results. This study’s innovative contribution is the development and validation of a practical methodology to simplify complex hyperspectral data for real-world robotic weed management. This includes the introduction of the ‘normalized crop sample index’ (NCSI) to guide band selection and the use of machine learning methods, which revealed a set of four spectral bands—480 nm, 550 nm, 686 nm and 750 nm—that hold sufficient discriminating information between weeds and watermelon crop. This minimal set of bands enables the simulation and future development of a low-cost, high-speed multispectral camera system. An XGBoost model showed the lowest misclassification error level of 2–14%. The selected spectral bands were used to extract single-band images from the hyperspectral cube. In these images, vegetation pixels were separated using a normalized difference vegetation index filter, and each pixel was classified into a crop or weed class. The classified pixels were grouped into segmented objects, and weeding points were selected, suitable for robotic pinpoint operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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14 pages, 1117 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Vents Opening Configurations and Orientations for Effective Natural Ventilation in Sustainable Greenhouses: A Case Study

by Ibrahim M. Al-Helal, Abdullah A. Alsadon, Abdullah A. Ibrahim and Mohamed R. Shady

Agronomy 2025, 15(11), 2454; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112454 - 22 Oct 2025

Viewed by 747

Abstract

For sustainable greenhouse design, natural ventilation is a vital component; it depends on the local climate. Therefore, optimizing the greenhouse orientation and vent opening configuration is a critical issue that needs to be addressed for a specific location (e.g., the central region of [...] Read more.

For sustainable greenhouse design, natural ventilation is a vital component; it depends on the local climate. Therefore, optimizing the greenhouse orientation and vent opening configuration is a critical issue that needs to be addressed for a specific location (e.g., the central region of Saudia Arabia). Experiments were conducted in winter, in a curved-roof, single-span, N-S oriented greenhouse that includes roof and side-wall vents. Five different vent opening arrangements were examined. The outside and inside greenhouse environmental parameters were measured, and the ventilation rate (kg·s⁻¹) and the number of air exchanges per hour (N_a) were estimated for each opening case using a modified energy balance equation. The results showed that the common wind directions are N-S and NW-SE. For effective ventilation, greenhouses should be oriented in the E-W or NE-SW directions. Opening the side-wall vents exhibited the highest wind-driven ventilation rate that is essential to control temperature and humidity at the crop level, while only opening the roof vents is not recommended. In the central region of Saudi Arabia, natural ventilation is sufficient for operating greenhouses (

{\bar{N}}_{a}

> 30). Opening the roof and side-wall vents (combined wind and buoyancy effects) is the most efficient as long as the greenhouse axis is aligned perpendicular to the wind direction. Such information is essential for sustainable greenhouse management in an arid environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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22 pages, 997 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Efficiency: How Increased Electricity Use Can Reduce Environmental Impacts in Controlled Hemp Cultivation—A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Study

by Adéla Kalkušová, Jaroslav Neumann, Nina Veselovská, Eliška Kůrková, Petr Konvalina, Reinhard W. Neugschwandtner and Jaroslav Bernas

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2400; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102400 - 16 Oct 2025

Viewed by 770

Abstract

This study aims to assess the environmental profile and identify environmental hotspots of indoor hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation through environmental impact analysis under four scenarios combining two nutrient solutions and two lighting intensities (540 W and 900 W). Indoor cultivation of [...] Read more.

This study aims to assess the environmental profile and identify environmental hotspots of indoor hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation through environmental impact analysis under four scenarios combining two nutrient solutions and two lighting intensities (540 W and 900 W). Indoor cultivation of industrial hemp is becoming increasingly relevant as plant production shifts to controlled environments, raising the need to evaluate its environmental implications. The assessment was conducted using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology in accordance with the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards, applying a cradle-to-gate system boundary and a functional unit of 1 kg of dried hemp inflorescence. Primary data were obtained from a controlled cultivation experiment, while secondary data were drawn from validated databases. The carbon footprint ranged from 1050 to 1610 kg CO₂ eq per kilogram of dried inflorescence. Scenarios with 900 W lighting showed 30–35% lower impacts per kilogram compared to 540 W variants. Electricity production and consumption were identified as major environmental hotspots, dominating most impact categories. The study concludes that improving input–output efficiency is essential for sustainable indoor cultivation and that integrating renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaics or biomass, could further reduce environmental impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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16 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Exploratory Field Case Study of Microbial and Resistance Genes Dynamics in the Maize Phyllosphere Following Fertigation with Anaerobic Digestate

by Camila Fabiani, María V. Valero, Jessica Basualdo, Marco Allegrini, Gastón A. Iocoli, María B. Villamil and María C. Zabaloy

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2398; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102398 - 16 Oct 2025

Viewed by 485

Abstract

Anaerobic digestate from manure, a byproduct of biogas production, is increasingly used as an organic fertilizer in circular agriculture systems. This study assessed the microbiological impact of maize fertigation with anaerobic digestate, focusing on fecal indicators (Escherichia coli, Salmonella), antibiotic [...] Read more.

Anaerobic digestate from manure, a byproduct of biogas production, is increasingly used as an organic fertilizer in circular agriculture systems. This study assessed the microbiological impact of maize fertigation with anaerobic digestate, focusing on fecal indicators (Escherichia coli, Salmonella), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and integrons. The trial was conducted in a commercial maize field, where on-site manure-based anaerobic digestate was applied via center-pivot irrigation. Leaf samples were collected two days (2 dai) and four weeks (4 wai) after the last fertigation. E. coli and Salmonella were assessed by culturable methods, while ARGs and integrons were analyzed by qPCR. Results showed that E. coli (3 MPN/g) and Salmonella were detected at 2 dai but were undetectable at 4 wai and in the control condition, suggesting transient contamination. The abundance of tetW was approximately tenfold higher in digestate-treated plants than in the control, while no consistent changes were observed for the other genes. Overall, fertigation with anaerobic digestate appears to pose minimal microbiological impact within the specific conditions of this study, although it may act as a source of specific resistance determinants. Although limited by the use of single treated and control plots, this study offers preliminary insight into microbial and resistance gene dynamics in the phyllosphere, providing a basis for future replicated hypothesis-driven studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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15 pages, 900 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Management and Digital Tools to Reduce Waste in Plant Protection Process

by Marianna Cardi Peccinelli, Marcos Milan and Thiago Libório Romanelli

Agronomy 2025, 15(10), 2276; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15102276 - 25 Sep 2025

Viewed by 465

Abstract

The search for higher efficiency in agribusiness supports the adoption of digital tools and Lean Production principles in agricultural spraying, a crucial operation for crops. Spraying is essential to ensure yield, quality, cost efficiency, and environmental protection. This study analyzed operational data from [...] Read more.

The search for higher efficiency in agribusiness supports the adoption of digital tools and Lean Production principles in agricultural spraying, a crucial operation for crops. Spraying is essential to ensure yield, quality, cost efficiency, and environmental protection. This study analyzed operational data from self-propelled sprayers in soybean and corn fields, classifying hours, calculating efficiencies, and applying statistical process control. Efficiencies were investigated by combining Lean Production principles with CAN-based digital monitoring, which enabled the identification of non-value-adding activities and supported the real-time management of spraying operations. The results showed that productive time accounted for 41.2% of total recorded hours, corresponding to effective operation and auxiliary tasks directly associated with the execution of spraying activities. A high proportion of unrecorded hours (21.2%) was also observed, reflecting discrepancies between administrative work schedules and machine-logged data. Additionally, coefficients of variation for operational speed and fuel consumption were 12.1% and 24.0%, respectively. Correcting special causes increased work capacity (4.9%) and reduced fuel consumption (0.9%). Economic simulations, based on efficiencies, operating parameters of the sprayer, and cost indicators, indicated that increasing scale reduces costs when installed capacity is carefully managed. Integrating telemetry with Lean Production principles enables real-time resource optimization and waste reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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20 pages, 11693 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Long-Term Annual Changes in Agricultural Carbon Footprints and Associated Driving Factors in China from 2000 to 2020

by Xingyuan Xiao, Xuanming Hu, Yaqun Liu and Changhe Lu

Agronomy 2025, 15(2), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15020453 - 13 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1112

Abstract

China is one of the world’s largest agricultural producers, and its agricultural carbon footprint (CF) is a major contributor to global warming. However, the long-term annual changes in its agricultural CF and the underlying driving factors remain largely unknown, compromising the scientific basis [...] Read more.

China is one of the world’s largest agricultural producers, and its agricultural carbon footprint (CF) is a major contributor to global warming. However, the long-term annual changes in its agricultural CF and the underlying driving factors remain largely unknown, compromising the scientific basis for effective carbon reduction and sustainable agriculture management. To this end, we used the life cycle assessment (LCA) method and statistical data to calculate long-term annual agricultural CFs in China. We then adopted the linear regression slope and the Moran’s I method to analyze the temporal trends and spatial clustering characteristics and revealed the correlations between the main drivers and agricultural CFs. The results showed that the total (TCF) and farmland-averaged carbon footprint (FCF) of crop production both increased first and then decreased in China from 2000 to 2020, with a turning point in 2015. Overall, the TCF increased by 6.82% (3022.16 × 10⁴ t CO₂ eq), while the FCF slightly decreased by 0.004% (0.01 t CO₂ eq/ha). Both the TCF and the FCF showed spatial heterogeneity, with high values in the east and low values in the west, and the spatial clustering of the TCF and its components has weakened over time. Fertilizer (39.26%) and paddy (27.38%) were the main contributors to TCF. Driver analysis found that grain yield was positively correlated with TCF in most provinces, indicating that the continuous yield increase has brought greater pressure on agricultural carbon emission reduction in China. Agricultural stakeholders should optimize crop planting structures and patterns and improve resource-use efficiencies through technological and management innovation to adapt to these threats and achieve low-carbon agriculture. The findings of our research can aid the scientific research on spatiotemporal estimation and driver analysis of agricultural CFs and provide decision-making support for sustainable agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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14 pages, 889 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cover Crops Can Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from No-Till Maize in Southern Brazil: Insights from a Long-Term Field Experiment

by Guilherme Rosa da Silva, Adam J. Liska and Cimélio Bayer

Agronomy 2025, 15(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15020267 - 22 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2428

Abstract

Brazil is one of the countries that has the most agricultural area under no-till (NT) management. This research study aims to evaluate life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from maize (M) grain production in agroecosystems that used different cover crops under NT management in [...] Read more.

Brazil is one of the countries that has the most agricultural area under no-till (NT) management. This research study aims to evaluate life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from maize (M) grain production in agroecosystems that used different cover crops under NT management in southern Brazil. The data for this study were from a long-term 41-year field experiment in southern Brazil. The long-term experiment evaluated the effects of fallow (F) and cover crops (oat (O), vetch (V), cowpea (B), pigeon pea (P), and lablab (L)) on nitrous oxide and methane emissions and soil carbon (C) sequestration in maize agroecosystems. Five cropping systems, FM, OV/M, OV/MB, PM, and LM, were evaluated. Our results show that cover crops can reduce life-cycle GHG emissions by ~40 to >100% through increased soil C sequestration. The agroecosystems with winter cover crops (OV/M and OV/MB) had higher life-cycle GHG emissions (0.5 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹ of M or 2.6 Mg CO₂e ha⁻¹) than the agroecosystem with winter F (0.06 kg CO₂e kg⁻¹ of M or 0.2 Mg CO₂e ha⁻¹). Summer cover crops (P and L) resulted in negative life-cycle GHG emissions (an average of −0.2 kg CO₂e kg M⁻¹ or −1.2 Mg CO₂e ha⁻¹) and increased the M grain yield. This study shows that cover crops can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from NT M in southern Brazil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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21 pages, 3184 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Irrigation with Treated Slaughterhouse Effluent and Bradyrhizobium spp. Inoculation on Soybean Development and Productivity: Strategies for Sustainable Management

by Ana Carolina Murad Lima, Lisiane Brichi, Lucas Renato Trevisan, André Leão de Souza Dominguez, Gustavo Nocera Santiago, Tamara Maria Gomes and Fabrício Rossi

Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010167 - 11 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1657

Abstract

Water scarcity challenges in agriculture are prompting the exploration of alternative irrigation sources, including treated effluents. This study investigates the effects of irrigation with treated slaughterhouse effluent on soybean productivity and development, with and without inoculation, over two cropping cycles. Plant performance was [...] Read more.

Water scarcity challenges in agriculture are prompting the exploration of alternative irrigation sources, including treated effluents. This study investigates the effects of irrigation with treated slaughterhouse effluent on soybean productivity and development, with and without inoculation, over two cropping cycles. Plant performance was significantly influenced by environmental factors and the interaction between effluent and inoculation. Plant height and leaf area were greater in the second cycle, with effluent enhancing growth and foliar development. Fresh and dry shoot biomass showed significant interactions among cycle, inoculation, and effluent, with higher effluent concentrations combined with inoculation being most effective in the first cycle. Foliar nitrogen concentrations were higher in the first cycle, particularly at elevated effluent doses, while foliar sodium showed a positive correlation with nitrogen and a negative correlation with magnesium. Chlorophyll indices varied across developmental stages, with maximum chlorophyll b estimated at 85.35% effluent irrigation. Soybean yield did not vary significantly with effluent dilutions, suggesting environmental factors had a greater influence. In conclusion, treated effluent irrigation represents a sustainable strategy for soybean production, optimizing water and nutrient use while reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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30 pages, 9808 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Criteria Analysis for Geospatialization of Potential Areas for Water Reuse in Irrigated Agriculture in Hydrographic Regions

by Ana Paula Pereira Carvalho, Ana Claudia Pereira Carvalho, Mirian Yasmine Krauspenhar Niz, Fabrício Rossi, Giovana Tommaso and Tamara Maria Gomes

Agronomy 2024, 14(11), 2689; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14112689 - 15 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1864

Abstract

As the climate crisis progresses, droughts and the seasonal availability of fresh water are becoming increasingly common in different regions of the world. One solution to tackle this problem is the reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. This study was carried out in [...] Read more.

As the climate crisis progresses, droughts and the seasonal availability of fresh water are becoming increasingly common in different regions of the world. One solution to tackle this problem is the reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture. This study was carried out in two significant hydrographic regions located in the southeast of Brazil (Mogi Guaçu River Water Management Unit—UGRHI-09 and Piracicaba River Basin—PRB) that have notable differences in terms of land use and land cover. The aim of this study was to carry out a multi-criteria analysis of a set of environmental attributes in order to classify the areas under study according to their levels of soil suitability and runoff potential. The integrated analysis made it possible to geospatialize prospective regions for reuse, under two specified conditions. In the UGRHI-09, condition 1 corresponds to 3373.24 km², while condition 2 comprises 286.07 km², located mainly in the north-western and central-eastern portions of the unit. In the PRB, condition 1 was also more expressive in occupational terms, corresponding to 1447.83 km²; and condition 2 was perceptible in 53.11 km², predominantly in the central region of the basin. The physical characteristics of the areas studied were decisive in delimiting the areas suitable for the reuse of treated wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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14 pages, 2036 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of GroMore^® Program on Rice Yield and GHG Emissions in a Korean Paddy Rice

by Sung Yung Yoo, Jun-Ki Son, Kyoung-Sik Jun and Hyun-Hwoi Ku

Agronomy 2024, 14(10), 2448; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102448 - 21 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1899

Abstract

The agronomic benefits of pesticides combined with amino acid application to increase rice production have been recognized, but they are still not well-known for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation in irrigated paddy fields. Thus, this study was conducted to investigate the combined [...] Read more.

The agronomic benefits of pesticides combined with amino acid application to increase rice production have been recognized, but they are still not well-known for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation in irrigated paddy fields. Thus, this study was conducted to investigate the combined effects of pesticide and amino acid application on rice yield and methane (CH₄) emissions in a Korean rice paddy. A field experiment was conducted with five levels: none (no pesticide application, T1), different conventional practices (combined application of insecticides and fungicide, T2 and T3), and GroMore^® programs (combined application of insecticides, fungicides, and amino acids, T4 and T5). Rice grain yield and yield components were obtained using agronomic measurements. To determine the greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) of each treatment, CH₄ emissions were measured throughout the rice growing period. Results showed that the chemical applications in combination with amino acids in T4 obtained a higher grain yield and number of panicles per plant compared to T1, T2, and T3, while T4 and T5 showed no difference on filled spikelets except for T2. T3 and T5 showed lower respective cumulative CH₄ emissions by 30% and 32% during the entire rice growing season, compared to no chemical application (T1). Meanwhile, N₂O emissions were negligible in all treatments because the paddy field was flooded most of the growing season. The results of the impact of GroMore^® programs on relatively higher grain yield and lower GHG emissions are presented. In conclusion, the application of pesticides combined with amino acids obtained lower GHGI values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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Review

Jump to: Research

40 pages, 1879 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Systematic Review of Opportunities and Limitations of Innovative Practices in Sustainable Agriculture

by Anita Boros, Eszter Szólik, Goshu Desalegn and Dávid Tőzsér

Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010076 - 30 Dec 2024

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 15344

Abstract

A transformation is needed in agricultural production to satisfy the growing population-based increased food demands and overcome food safety challenges while supporting human health and the preservation of natural resources. Improving sustainable agricultural practices is essential for developing a long-term and resilient economy. [...] Read more.

A transformation is needed in agricultural production to satisfy the growing population-based increased food demands and overcome food safety challenges while supporting human health and the preservation of natural resources. Improving sustainable agricultural practices is essential for developing a long-term and resilient economy. This systematic review with meta-analyses aims to overview sustainable agriculture’s progress, trends, and future opportunities, focusing primarily on integrating novel technologies into recently prevailing agricultural operations. As a basis, an extensive literature search was conducted, identifying nearly 45,000 records related closely to various dimensions of sustainable agriculture. Out of these, based on a thorough selection process, 291 were included in further evaluations. The temporal distribution and content analyses indicated an improvement in the number of papers and the spectrum of addressed agricultural aspects. The analysis of the publications revealed that most traditional farming practices focus on mass food production and cannot deal with further interrelated sustainability challenges. On the other hand, sustainable agricultural practices consider sustainability’s environmental, economic, and social aspects, thereby preserving environmental health and supporting economic viability and social well-being. The integrative assessment in this study suggests that adopting novel, innovative practices can achieve the most significant progress toward agricultural sustainability. At the same time, a broad range of limitations and challenges are listed, which widely hinder the penetration of sustainability initiatives. To eliminate these barriers, consistent policy regulations are required, targeting specific agricultural problems, alongside a complex, education-based support system, further boosting initiatives related to the green transition in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Agricultural Systems: Enhancing Efficiency and Reducing Environmental Impact)

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