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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Farming Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2020) | Viewed by 35137

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Kathleen Delate

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Guest Editor

Departments of Agronomy and Horticulture, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
Interests: examination of appropriate crop rotations; organic no-till; varietal response; integrated crop–livestock systems to improve soil quality and economic returns

Dr. Bradley J. Heins

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Guest Editor

Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, Morris, MN 56267, USA
Interests: organic dairy production systems; crossbreeding; renewable energy systems for dairy farms; integrated crop–livestock systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The United States’ economic and ecological agricultural landscape is undergoing a series of radical changes—the full impact of which will resonate for years to come. Worldwide competition for a broad range of commodities, including petroleum, natural gas, grain, and oilseed staples, have escalated production costs. As a result, agricultural producers are facing an increased need for capital in order to cover the cost of land, equipment, and livestock feed, and especially, fertility inputs. Currently, there is limited information on matching cropping and grazing cycles with climatic conditions for optimal crop and livestock production. Re-integrating livestock into the farm landscape would have multiple benefits, including the enhancement of soil quality and potential mitigation of pests. The protection or enhancement of carbon and other nutrients in soil organic matter is at the heart of crop–livestock systems, in order to maintain soil fertility and structure in sustainable systems. Organic crop-livestock systems offer particular benefits in terms of reduction of pesticides in the environment and premium prices in the marketplace.

Please share your success stories from research on crop–livestock integration around the world in this Special Issue. Submissions on the following topics (but not limited to) are invited: (1) developing model integrated crop–livestock systems, (2) agronomic practices related to crop–livestock integration, with an emphasis on organic production, (3) methods to reduce production costs for livestock feed and soil fertility amendments, (4) improved soil biological processes to reduce environmental and economic costs, and (5) decision support tools and modeling.

Prof. Kathleen Delate
Dr. Bradley J. Heins
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Crop–livestock systems
Forage systems
Organic production
Cropping systems
Pest cycle distruption
Soil-building
Carbon sequestration
Crop–livestock models
Food safety for livestock

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 185 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Diversifying the Landscape with Animal Integration: An Introduction to the Environmental Sustainability of Crop–Livestock Systems

by Kathleen Delate and Bradley J. Heins

Agronomy 2021, 11(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010140 - 13 Jan 2021

Viewed by 1478

Abstract

In this Special Issue of “Environmental Sustainability of Crop–Livestock Systems,” we collected eleven articles that represent a wide breadth of integrated systems around the world, including the U [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

Research

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13 pages, 269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forage Yield and Nutritive Value of Cool-Season and Warm-Season Forages for Grazing Organic Dairy Cattle

by Kathryn E. Ritz, Bradley J. Heins, Roger Moon, Craig Sheaffer and Sharon L. Weyers

Agronomy 2020, 10(12), 1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10121963 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2913

Abstract

The objective of this study was to compare the forage nutritive value of cool-season perennial grasses and legumes with that of warm-season annual grasses grazed by organic dairy cows. Two pasture systems were analyzed across the grazing season at an organic dairy in Morris, Minnesota. Pasture system 1 included perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), meadow bromegrass (Bromus riparius Rehmann), meadow fescue (Schedonorus pratensis (Huds.) P. Beauv), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), and chicory (Cichorium intybus L.). Pasture system 2 was a combination of system 1 and monocultures of warm-season grasses (sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench subsp. drummondii [Steud.]) and teff (Eragrostis tef L.)). Across the grazing season, forage yield was 39% greater for system 2 than system 1 due to greater forage yield during the summer. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were similar for cool-season and warm-season grasses. Warm-season grasses had greater forage yield during the summer months compared with cool-season grasses and legumes. The total tract NDF digestibility (TTNDFD) varied by month and year across the study for both pasture systems. Overall, weather may affect the forage nutritive value for both cool-season perennial grasses and legumes and warm-season annual grasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

20 pages, 2295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change Impacts on Irrigation Requirements of Preserved Forage for Horses under Mediterranean Conditions

by Daniela Soares, João Rolim, Maria João Fradinho and Teresa Afonso do Paço

Agronomy 2020, 10(11), 1758; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10111758 - 12 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2121

Abstract

Pasture and forage production occupies a large part of the utilized agricultural area in Portugal, a country prone to the effects of climate change. This study aims at evaluating the impacts of climate change on forage irrigation requirements and at defining and assessing different adaptation measures. A second objective focuses on evaluating the impacts on water deficit of rainfed forages. This study was performed in a Lusitano horse stud farm located in Azambuja Municipality, Portugal. The climate change impacts on the crop irrigation requirements and crop water deficit were simulated using the soil water balance model, ISAREG. The reference period considered was 1971–2000 and the climate scenarios were the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 (2071–2100). The results show that the adaptation measure aiming at maximum production (several cuts) will increase the irrigation requirements in the different climate change scenarios between 38.4% and 67.1%. The adaptation measure aiming at reducing the water consumption (only one cut) will lead to a reduction in irrigation requirements in the different climate change scenarios, ranging between −31.1% and −64.0%. In rainfed conditions, the water deficit is substantially aggravated in the climate change scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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26 pages, 1224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutritional Quality of Plant Species in Pyrenean Hay Meadows of High Diversity

by Ramón Reiné, Joaquín Ascaso and Olivia Barrantes

Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060883 - 19 Jun 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3538

Abstract

The feed quality of 34 species (27 dicotyledonous and 7 grasses) present in the vegetation of the Pyrenean mountain hay meadows rich in species subject to extensive management is analyzed in this paper. For this, just before mowing, samples were taken in the field and their organic and mineral components were determined in the laboratory. The results indicate that some species, such as Taraxacum officinale, Sanguisorba minor, Chaerophyllum aureum, and Lotus corniculatus, are outstanding in their forage feed value and, in the cases of T. officinale and C. aureum, also for their mineral content. The non-leguminous forbs studied presented quality comparable to legumes and higher than grasses, which provide worse nutritional values in this type of late-cut meadow. The forbs are shown to have higher content than grasses and legumes in Mg, K, and Na, as well as intermediate Ca content. All species present suitable mineral content for animal nutrition, except in the case of P, which is low. The Ca:P ratio is higher than adequate in half of the species analyzed, while the K:(Ca + Mg) ratio is appropriate for all species. The ratios between the elements N, P, and K indicate that most of the species studied grow under N-limited conditions, which are adequate for their conservation in the meadows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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16 pages, 1038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatty Acid Composition Dynamics of Rye (Secale cereale L.) and Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Forages under Cattle Grazing

by Hannah N. Phillips, Bradley J. Heins, Kathleen Delate and Robert Turnbull

Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060813 - 09 Jun 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2412

Abstract

There is little information on the fatty acid dynamics of forages under grazing. The objectives of this study were to determine the fatty acid compositions of fall-planted rye (Secale cereale L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) forages while rotationally grazed by steers (Bos Taurus L.) for seven weeks in the spring and summer in Minnesota, USA. With respect to the total fatty acids in forages, the concentration of α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) decreased linearly while the concentration of linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) increased quadratically over the grazing interval. Simultaneously, the omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio increased quadratically in forages. The fatty acid composition had a greater magnitude of variation in wheat compared to rye over the course of the grazing interval. The omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acid ratio was lower in wheat compared to rye for at least the first five weeks, but was ≤ 0.21 for both forages during the entire grazing interval. Results from this study indicated that forage fatty acid compositions varied based on number of days of the grazing interval and forage species, informing producers of potential grazing schedule adjustments to manage the dietary fatty acid intake of grazing cattle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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18 pages, 1169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cropping System and Rotational Grazing Effects on Soil Fertility and Enzymatic Activity in an Integrated Organic Crop-Livestock System

by Fernando Shintate Galindo, Kathleen Delate, Bradley Heins, Hannah Phillips, Andrew Smith and Paulo Humberto Pagliari

Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060803 - 05 Jun 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3949

Abstract

Alternative grazing systems that incorporate cover crops may be useful to achieve a longer grazing season and maximize forage production. However, little is known about their impact on soil properties, especially in the presence or absence of cattle grazing in the early spring. The aim of this study was to evaluate the interacting effects of cropping systems with and without cattle grazing in rotation with corn or soybean on the balance and dynamics of soil fertility and enzyme activity. This study was conducted as a system experiment between 2015 and 2019 in Minnesota and Pennsylvania, USA. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments included presence or absence of cattle grazing and two types of cropping systems (pasture-rye-soybean-pasture [P-R-SB-P] and pasture-wheat/vetch-corn-pasture [P-W/V-C-P]. Soil samples were collected six times during the study. Soil properties analyzed were soil pH, organic matter, salinity, K, Ca, Mg, cation exchange capacity (CEC), P, β-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, aryl-sulfatase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis, ammonium, nitrate, permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC), N%, C%, S%, and C:N ratio. Grazing increased glucosidase activity, available Ca, Mg, NO₃⁻, NH₄⁺, soil pH, soil C%, S%, and the C:N ratio. In the P-W/V-C-P cropping system, soil pH, available Ca, NO₃⁻, and sulfatase activity were found to increase compared with the P-R-SB-P cropping system. In contrast, soil OM, available K, Mg, CEC, glucosidase, phosphatase, POXC, and total C%, N%, and S% were greater in the P-R-SB-P cropping system compared with the P-W/V-C-P cropping system. The results of this study suggested that rotational grazing can increase soil quality and microbial decomposition under the P-W/V-C-P cropping system, and that this result was greater than under the P-R-SB-P cropping system, leading to a faster nutrient cycling. These results show promise for producers who are seeking methods to diversify their farming operation and reduce the need for external inputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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15 pages, 1555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Carbon Dynamics under Pastures in Andean Socio-Ecosystems of Colombia

by María-Cristina Ordoñez, Juan Fernando Casanova Olaya, Leopoldo Galicia and Apolinar Figueroa

Agronomy 2020, 10(4), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10040507 - 02 Apr 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2312

Abstract

Models can help to explain the main interactions, magnitudes, and velocity by which biological processes accumulate soil organic carbon (SOC) in pastures. An explanatory model using Insight Maker software was constructed for each soil under natural and cultivated pastures, using theoretical carbon models and data which were collected monthly in andisol sites. The model was calibrated and validated by comparing the modeled data to the field data until the smallest prediction error was reached. The indicators used were the mean absolute error (MAE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and the coefficient of determination (R²). In natural pasture soil, the diversification of organic inputs consistently promoted the growth of microbial biomass and metabolic efficiency. In contrast, intensive management of cultivated pastures, involving the removal of plant cover, plowing and low input of organic matter, stressed the microbial community and increased the potential carbon loss through secondary mineralization and surface runoff. The application of modeling indicated that it is necessary to improve agronomic practices in cultivated pastures, to maintain soil cover and to increase the application of organic fertilizer by 1.5 times, in order to reduce stress on the microbial biomass, accumulate SOC, minimize organic matter mineralization and reduce C losses due to surface runoff. Therefore, improving agricultural management based on the understanding of soil processes will allow increasing the potential for SOC storage, while improving pasture sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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21 pages, 4492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Dry Matter Production and Grain Yield of Dual-Purpose Winter Wheat Using Field Experiment and Modelling

by Ketema Tilahun Zeleke

Agronomy 2020, 10(3), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10030338 - 02 Mar 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3390

Abstract

The potential of a winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivar Wedgetail to provide grazing and grain yield under different sowing times, grazing times, and watering regimes, under current and future climate, was investigated using field experiment and simulation modelling. For the field experiment, there were two watering treatments (unirrigated (D) and irrigated (I)) and four simulated grazing treatments (ungrazed, simulated grazed at growth stage (GS) 25, simulated grazed at growth stage (GS) 32, and grazed at both GS 25 and GS 32). These were designated as D0, D1, D2, and D3, respectively, for the unirrigated treatment and I0, I1, I2, and I3, respectively, for the irrigated treatment. It was found that the soil water depletion was significantly higher (p < 0.05) for the irrigated/ungrazed treatment than that for the simulated grazed treatment. The crop simulated grazed at GS 25 recovered quicker than the crop grazed at GS 32, especially for the unirrigated treatment. As the sowing time is delayed, above-ground dry matter (AGDM) production decreases. For D2 and D3, the amount of simulated grazed AGDM was 3.46 t ha⁻¹ and 3.55 t ha⁻¹, respectively. For I2 and I3, the amount of simulated grazed AGDM was 4.73 t ha⁻¹ and 4.34 t ha⁻¹, respectively. For D1, simulated grazing increased grain yield by 7%, while for D2 and D3, it increased by 18% and 24%, respectively. For I1, simulated grazing reduced grain yield by 16%, while for I2 and I3, it decreased by 42% and 42%, respectively. Simulation using the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) showed that, for winter wheat sown in the second week of March, the maximum AGDM expected one in two years at the ends of May, June, and July is 4.5 t ha⁻¹, 5.8 t ha⁻¹, and 6.8 t ha⁻¹, respectively. If the crop is sown mid-April, these values are 0.8 t ha⁻¹, 2.2 t ha⁻¹, and 4.3 t ha⁻¹, respectively. Yield did not show response to times of sowing from March to early April. The maximum value reached was about 4.5 t ha⁻¹ when sown in the fourth week of March, after which it started decreasing and reached the lowest value of about 4.1 t ha⁻¹ when sown by the end of May. The total above-ground dry matter (AGDM) obtained by grazing earlier during the feasible grazing period and again towards the end of this period was not significantly different from grazing only once towards the end of this period. The simulation results showed that winter wheat Wedgetail flowering date was less sensitive to sowing time and that yield did not show a significant response to times of sowing, with the maximum occurring for the fourth week of March sowing and the lowest for the fourth week of May sowing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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16 pages, 6575 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Hay Meadows between 1956, 1986, and 2016 and Its Relation to the Characteristics and Location of the Parcels in the Valley of the River Esera (Pyrenees, Spain)

by Joaquín Ascaso, Ramón Reiné and Olivia Barrantes

Agronomy 2020, 10(3), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10030329 - 02 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1868

Abstract

The uses of the agricultural surface of hay meadows and crops of the mountain areas of the Spanish central Pyrenees are subject to constant transformations. This paper addresses the changes produced in the hay meadows of the Ésera river valley of the central Pyrenees (Spain) regarding the surface and the agronomic and topographic characteristics of the parcels between 1956–1986 and 1986–2016. The cartographed area is 5226 hectares, of which 1941 hectares correspond to 6416 polygons that have been mowed or cultivated on one of the three reference dates. In the period 1956–1986, there is a reduction in the agricultural area of meadows and crops (13.59%) in favor of pastures, forest, urbanized land, and water reservoirs. The surface of the meadows increases to 301.58%, to the detriment of the crops, until almost their disappearance. Between 1986 and 2016, the area of meadows is reduced to 59.11%, and the area of pastures, forests, and urbanized land increases. The topographic characteristics of the parcels with respect to surface, altitude, slope, width, and terracing and distance to the communication routes determine mechanized access and management and discriminate the transformation to pasture and forest. Full article

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13 pages, 1333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clipping Forage Sorghum Twice and Nitrogen Topdressing Offer an Option for Dual-Purpose Use for Cover Cropping and Fodder in Mixed Crop/Livestock Farming Systems

by Kudzayi Janhi, Zimkhitha Matshaya, Cornelius Chiduza and Lindah Muzangwa

Agronomy 2020, 10(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10010017 - 20 Dec 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2687

Abstract

Management practices that promote dual-purpose use of cover crops as forage and soil cover can encourage adoption in mixed smallholder (SH) farming systems. This study investigated the feasibility of dual-purpose use of forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor x Sorghum bicolor var. sudanense) by testing the effects of clipping frequency and nitrogen (N) topdressing on the root biomass, crude protein (CP), acid detergent (ADF), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in the greenhouse and vegetative biomass on the experimental farm station. Four levels of clipping were tested: not clipped (C1), clipped once (C2), twice (C3), and thrice (C4). Nitrogen topdressing had two levels: with (N1) and without (N0) recommended supplementary N. Results show that absence of N topdressing significantly (p < 0.05) increased root biomass in C2, while increasing clipping frequency significantly (p < 0.001) decreased root biomass. During the growing period, N topdressing significantly (p < 0.001) increased CP content in C3 and C4 and NDF (p < 0.01) content in C4. At the termination stage, there was a significant interaction between clipping frequency and N topdressing on the biomass yield obtained in both 2016–2017 (p < 0.05) and 2017–2018 (p < 0.001), respectively. Clipping twice and N topdressing emerged as the best management practice for the dual-purpose of soil cover and livestock feed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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22 pages, 2438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Soil Loss Tolerance in Olive Groves as an Indicator of Sustainability: The Case of the Estepa Region (Andalusia, Spain)

by Antonio Alberto Rodríguez Sousa, Jesús María Barandica and Alejandro J. Rescia

Agronomy 2019, 9(12), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9120785 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2736

Abstract

Spain is the world's leading producer of olive oil, with the largest number of olive agro-systems in the Andalusia region. However, rural migration, low profitability, and biophysical limitations to production have compromised their sustainability. Soil erosion is the main cause of declining production and must be controlled to sustain production and keep soil loss below a threshold (soil loss tolerance, SLT). In this paper, the Soil Loss Tolerance Index (SLTI) for non-specific crops was calculated, theoretically, in different Andalusian olive-growing areas. A new Soil Loss Tolerance Index specifically for olive groves was developed (SLTIog) using soil variables related to erosion corresponding to the Estepa region. This index and the Soil Productive Index (SPI) were estimated. Andalusian olive groves with severe erosion were unsustainable for a 150-year period according to SLTI. However, applying the SLTIog in olive groves of Estepa, soil loss was not unsustainable. Although no statistically significant differences were detected between the two SLT indices, the consideration of specific soil variables in the SLTIog made it more accurate and reliable for the assessment of potential long-term sustainability. The use of specific indices for olive groves can inform the adoption of management measures to maintain productivity and support conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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15 pages, 2237 KiB

Open AccessConcept Paper

The ‘Palo a Pique’ Long-Term Research Platform: First 25 Years of a Crop–Livestock Experiment in Uruguay

by Pablo Rovira, Walter Ayala, José Terra, Fernando García-Préchac, Paul Harris, Michael R.F. Lee and M. Jordana Rivero

Agronomy 2020, 10(3), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10030441 - 23 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5036

Abstract

Mixed crop–livestock long-term experiments (LTE) are critical to increase the understanding of sustainability in complex agroecosystems. One example is the ‘Palo a Pique’ LTE which has been running for 25 years in Uruguay (from 1995 to present), evaluating four pasture–crop rotations under livestock grazing with no-till technology in soils with severe limitations. The results demonstrate that cropping systems reduced soil organic carbon (SOC) compared with permanent pastures, and that perennial pastures rotating with crops were critical to mitigate SOC losses. Data from the ‘Palo a Pique’ LTE has contributed to the establishment of new national policies to secure the sustainability of agricultural-based systems. Although the original purpose of the LTE was oriented to crops and soils, a demand for sustainable livestock intensification has gathered momentum over recent years. As a result, the current approach of the ‘Palo a Pique’ LTE matches each pasture–crop rotation with the most suitable livestock strategy with the common goal of producing 400 kg liveweight/ha per year. General approaches to the pursuit of sustainable livestock intensification include shortening the cycle of production, diversifying animal categories, increasing liveweight gain and final animal liveweight, and strategic livestock supplementation. Prediction of trade-offs between environmental, economic, and production indicators can be addressed through monitoring and modeling, enabling the timely anticipation of adverse sustainability issues on commercial farms. The ‘Palo a Pique’ LTE serves as a framework to address contemporary and future questions dealing with the role of ruminants on climate change, competition for land, nutrient dynamics, and food security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Sustainability of Crop-Livestock Systems)

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