Journal Description
Religions
Religions
is an international, interdisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on religions and theology, published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, AHCI (Web of Science), ATLA Religion Database, Religious and Theological Abstracts, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q1 (Religious Studies)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 25.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 4.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
0.6 (2024)
Latest Articles
Religious Belief in the Later Wittgenstein—A ‘Form of Life’, a ‘Hinge’, a ‘Weltanschauung’, Something Else or None of These?
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1046; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081046 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later remarks on religious belief (from around the mid-1930s onwards) have often been and continue to be interpreted in connection with other terms he used in his later philosophy. The most common interpretations argue that Wittgenstein understands religious belief as a
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Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later remarks on religious belief (from around the mid-1930s onwards) have often been and continue to be interpreted in connection with other terms he used in his later philosophy. The most common interpretations argue that Wittgenstein understands religious belief as a language-game or a group of language-games, as (part of) a form of life, and/or as a hinge/part of a world-picture. The term ‘Weltanschauung’ is also occasionally used to interpret Wittgenstein’s remarks on religious belief, and finally, Wittgenstein himself sporadically uses the term ‘style of thinking’ in connection with religious belief. In this paper, I will first conduct a meta-analysis of the secondary literature, presenting examples of the various lines of interpretation and criticism of these approaches. Subsequently, the various interpretations are examined to see whether or not they can actually be read from Wittgenstein’s remarks. The result of this investigation is that those interpretations which pursue a systematizing presentation of Wittgenstein’s remarks are, to a certain extent, reductive representations insofar as they can only draw on some of Wittgenstein’s remarks to support their interpretation, while other remarks stand in tension with the respective interpretation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)
Open AccessReview
The Social Mind: Scientific Investigation and Spiritual Interventions
by
Anne Böckler-Raettig
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081045 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
Psychology as an empirical science has targeted human cognition for more than a century. Typically, the focus of these investigations was on isolated mental processes, which were studied in individual participants in confined laboratory settings. The present commentary aims to show how a
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Psychology as an empirical science has targeted human cognition for more than a century. Typically, the focus of these investigations was on isolated mental processes, which were studied in individual participants in confined laboratory settings. The present commentary aims to show how a relatively recent paradigm shift, the (renewed) conception of humans as fundamentally social, can shape our understanding of the mind and our scientific approach to studying spirituality. In the first sections, I will shortly review advances of psychological research in core processes and capacities of social understanding (empathy, compassion, perspective taking) and social interaction (communication, cooperation) that are also considered relevant in spiritual practices and traditions. Subsequently, a large-scale intervention study, the Resource Project, is presented to exemplify how the investigation of meditation-based mental trainings can decidedly include social practices (so-called contemplative dyads) and how these practices benefit interpersonal capacities. Arguing that cognition, spirituality, and scientific endeavors are not confined to individual minds and brains but arise in the dynamic in-between of interacting agents, I will outline possible avenues for future inter-disciplinary research at the interface of religious sciences/theology and psychology.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Consciousness between Science and Religion)
Open AccessArticle
Dual Structure and Paradigm Breakthrough: Reconstructing the Intellectual History of Dependent Origination in Sectarian Buddhism
by
Yinyin Zhao and Luming Liu
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081044 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
The evolution of the theory of dependent origination in sectarian Buddhism (部派佛教) follows two logical threads: one is the debate on the ontological nature of dharmas, which drove the shift towards a “non-substantiality” (Nairātmyavāda 無體論) interpretation of dependent origination; the other is
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The evolution of the theory of dependent origination in sectarian Buddhism (部派佛教) follows two logical threads: one is the debate on the ontological nature of dharmas, which drove the shift towards a “non-substantiality” (Nairātmyavāda 無體論) interpretation of dependent origination; the other is the discussion of the nature of dependent origination, which led to a shift towards a theory of unconditioned (Asaṃskṛtavāda 無為論). On the ontological nature of dharmas, the Sarvāstivāda (有部), rooted in the doctrine of “substantial existence in three times” (Trikāla-dravyāstitva 三世實有), established a “substantial dependent origination” (有體緣起論), arguing through three principles: self-nature inclusion (自性攝), substance without function (有體無用), and the real existence of causes and conditions (因緣實有). In contrast, schools such as the Mahāsāṃghika (大眾部), Dārṣṭāntika (譬喻師), and Sautrāntika (經量部) introduced theories like the “simultaneous arising of two minds” (二心俱生), “cognition having no object” (緣無境), and “seed-function”, propelling the shift towards a theory of non-substantialism. Concerning the nature of the law of dependent origination, the Sarvāstivāda asserted that “dependent origination is conditioned”, while the Vibhajyavāda (分別說部) pioneered the notion that “dependent origination is unconditioned”, abstracting the law of dependent origination from the phenomenal world into a transcendental existence, initiating a shift towards a theory of unconditioned and giving rise to two interpretative paths: one is the Mahāsāṃghika’s “intrinsic nature of the links of dependent origination” (緣起支性), leading to the construction of the “relational unconditioned” (關係性無為); the other is the Mahīśāsaka’s (化地部) “dependent origination as suchness” (緣起真如), leading to the construction of the “principle-based unconditioned” (理體性無為). The deep interaction of these two turns not only propelled the diverse development of sectarian Buddhism theories of dependent origination but also provided theoretical prototypes for Mahayana Buddhism’s (大乘佛教) theories, such as the theory of “dependent origination under ultimate reality” (實相緣起), “suchness-based dependent origination” (真如緣起), and “innate pure mind dependent origination” (自性清淨心緣起).
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Open AccessArticle
Wittgenstein and Johnson: Notes on a Neglected Appreciation
by
Brian R. Clack
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081043 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
M. O’C. Drury and Norman Malcolm both report that Wittgenstein gave them copies of Samuel Johnson’s Prayers and Meditations, a book that he said he valued highly. Given that Wittgenstein’s commentators have mined the ideas of other religious thinkers he admired (Kierkegaard,
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M. O’C. Drury and Norman Malcolm both report that Wittgenstein gave them copies of Samuel Johnson’s Prayers and Meditations, a book that he said he valued highly. Given that Wittgenstein’s commentators have mined the ideas of other religious thinkers he admired (Kierkegaard, Tolstoy, and so on) in order to illuminate his ambiguous thinking about religion, it is perhaps strange that this voiced appreciation of Johnson’s prayers has not been further investigated. The purpose of this paper is to correct that neglect. This is done by way of an exploration of the nature and content of Johnson’s prayers, and an analysis of how these prayers reflect the tormented state of Johnson’s mind and his concerns about indolence, death and judgment. Wittgenstein had noted that Malcolm would only like Johnson’s prayers if he looked at them “from the angle from which I see them”, something which in the context of his letter to Malcolm suggests the very “human” quality of these prayers, and their origin in Johnson’s personal struggles. A description of Wittgenstein’s own struggles (which mirror to some extent those of Johnson in their worries about indolence, judgment, and a guilt that requires confession) can then form the background to an understanding, not just of Wittgenstein’s personal spiritual state of mind, but of his philosophical account of religious belief and the turbulent human passions from which religion arises. Significant points of contact are noted between the respective thinking of Wittgenstein and Johnson, suggestive of new avenues of research that might profitably be explored.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)
Open AccessArticle
In the Silence of the Heart: Wittgenstein and the “Inner”
by
Hannes Nykänen
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1042; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081042 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
Wittgenstein’s philosophy has influenced the philosophy of religion quite considerably. This is hardly due to his rather few remarks on religion. Instead, Wittgenstein’s influence seems to be connected to a certain, without doubt common, interpretation of his later philosophy, mainly of Philosophical Investigations.
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Wittgenstein’s philosophy has influenced the philosophy of religion quite considerably. This is hardly due to his rather few remarks on religion. Instead, Wittgenstein’s influence seems to be connected to a certain, without doubt common, interpretation of his later philosophy, mainly of Philosophical Investigations. I speak about one interpretation because in my view the purportedly different interpretations of the sense in which certain key-concepts in the Philosophical Investigations are supposed to be fruitful for understanding religious language, in fact have a common, unacknowledged presupposition: that Wittgenstein’s account of language rotates around the quite traditional, philosophical concepts of subjectivity and objectivity. In the interpretations at stake, these concepts form the backdrop of questions about what “can” intelligibly be assessed by an individual and what “has to be” accounted for in “our” common language. There are discussions in the Philosophical Investigations that do give rise to such questions. However, what I take to be the main direction in Wittgenstein’s later philosophy is the movement away from the concepts of subjectivity and objectivity. Most clearly, this is visible in the second volume of Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology, where Wittgenstein dissolves the idea of the inscrutable inner of the other. As I will show, these remarks are in tension both with the views that his followers, such as Peter Winch, put forth and with his own remarks on religion in Culture and Value.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)
Open AccessArticle
Federalism in Afghanistan: Power Interests, Religion, and Ethnicity in Political Discourse
by
Abbas Poya
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081041 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
Federalism is a contemporary principle of constitutional organization, rooted mainly in Western constitutional traditions. It entails a system in which individual constituent states retain limited sovereignty and autonomy, while collectively forming a unified overarching state. This model stands in clear and fundamental opposition
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Federalism is a contemporary principle of constitutional organization, rooted mainly in Western constitutional traditions. It entails a system in which individual constituent states retain limited sovereignty and autonomy, while collectively forming a unified overarching state. This model stands in clear and fundamental opposition to the Taliban’s centralized and fundamentalist Islamist concept of governance. Nevertheless, or perhaps precisely because of this, the concept of federalism has sparked intense and controversial debate among Afghan activists and intellectuals since the Taliban’s return to power on 15 August 2021. While federalism has been a subject of discussion within smaller political and intellectual circles since the 1950s and 1960s, it has emerged as a significantly more prominent topic of debate over the past thirty years. In particular, the persistent and systematic discrimination against ethnic and religious minorities under the Taliban has intensified calls for political decentralization and proposals for regional autonomy. The article seeks to categorize the current debates on federalism in Afghanistan chronologically and discursively, analyzing the positions of its proponents and opponents through the lens of their religious and ethnic affiliations. Notably, the article does not treat ethnicity as a fixed or essential category, but rather as a socially and discursively constructed phenomenon.
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Open AccessArticle
An Exceptional Category of Central Monastic Officials in the Tang Dynasty: A Study of the Ten Bhadantas During the Reigns of Gaozu, Empress Wu, and Zhongzong
by
Jiajia Zheng
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081040 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
In most periods of the Tang Dynasty, central monastic officials were typically appointed from among government officials, while Buddhist monks could only serve as the Three Monastic Superintendents (sangang 三綱) in the Buddhist state monasteries at the local level. However, during the
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In most periods of the Tang Dynasty, central monastic officials were typically appointed from among government officials, while Buddhist monks could only serve as the Three Monastic Superintendents (sangang 三綱) in the Buddhist state monasteries at the local level. However, during the reigns of Gaozu, Empress Wu, and Zhongzong, a distinct group of monastic officials known as the “Ten Bhadantas” (shidade 十大德)—entirely composed of Buddhist monks—emerged as central monastic officials in exceptional political contexts, overseeing Buddhist affairs throughout the empire. Gaozu’s ten bhadantas were a temporary appointment, yet they constituted a centralized monastic administrative structure and institutional power center at the national level in Chang’an, tasked with supervising Buddhist affairs and monasteries across the empire. This arrangement provided substantial religious support and political guarantee at a time when religious policy remained unsettled and national governance was unstable during the early years of the Tang Dynasty. It helped the newly established regime overcome the difficulties of managing religious affairs in its formative period. Under Empress Wu, the ten bhadantas of the Dabiankongsi chapel offered powerful Buddhist theoretical support for her seizure of the Tang throne and the consolidation of the Wu-Zhou regime. They contributed to the sacralization, authorization, and legitimization of secular imperial power through appeals to heavenly mandate or Buddhist prophecy, thereby securing the reverence and acknowledgment of both monastic and lay communities. During Zhongzong’s reign, the ten bhadantas of the Linguang chapel aided him in leveraging Buddhism to expand his political influence and vigorously cultivating support from both monastic and lay Buddhist adherents within the government and across society, thereby consolidating his rule. Based on the above, this indicates that the ten bhadantas, a special institutional formation in the Tang Dynasty characterized by the functions and status of central monastic officials, exemplified a complex and tension-filled model of state–saṃgha relations. This model vividly reflected the ongoing historical process in which Buddhism was increasingly Sinicized and secularized.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)
Open AccessArticle
A Shelter for the Spirit: Ken‘ān Rifā‘ī’s Practical Theology and Adaptive Sufi Praxis in Early 20th-Century Istanbul
by
Arzu Eylul Yalcinkaya
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1039; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081039 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
This article examines the adaptive Sufi praxis of Ken‘ān Rifā‘ī (1867–1950) in early 20th-century Istanbul through the lens of practical theology. Navigating the political, social, and legal transformations of the late Ottoman and early Republican periods, Rifā‘ī sustained Sufi practices not by rigid
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This article examines the adaptive Sufi praxis of Ken‘ān Rifā‘ī (1867–1950) in early 20th-century Istanbul through the lens of practical theology. Navigating the political, social, and legal transformations of the late Ottoman and early Republican periods, Rifā‘ī sustained Sufi practices not by rigid institutional preservation but through a dynamic integration of spiritual tradition into the rhythms of urban modernity. His lodge, the Ümmü Ken‘ān Dergāh, functioned as a “moral commons”—simultaneously a site of devotional practice, social refuge, and ethical formation. Utilizing the frameworks of Don S. Browning’s fundamental practical theology, Elaine L. Graham’s emphasis on lived praxis, and John Swinton’s theology of qualitative reflection, this study explores how Rifā‘ī recontextualized classical Sufi rituals, ethical teachings, and communal hospitality to meet the needs of a rapidly secularizing and urbanizing society. Particular attention is given to his inclusive pedagogies, non-monetary ethos, integration of women as active participants, and the lodge’s role as a “shelter” amid widespread displacement, war, and social dislocation. By reading Rifā‘ī s practices as forms of contextual theology and lived religious adaptation, this article contributes to broader conversations on the resilience of spiritual communities under conditions of modern transformation, offering insights into how religious traditions may remain both rooted and responsive in times of profound societal change.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islamic Practical Theology)
Open AccessArticle
A 21st-Century Environmental Ethic: Theistically-Conscious Biocentric and Biomimetic Innovation
by
Krishna Keshava Das
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1038; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081038 - 12 Aug 2025
Abstract
This article offers a theistically conscious biocentric environmental ethic that builds upon the scaffolding of Aldo Leopold’s land ethic with a synthesis of biocentric individualism, deep ecology, and Vaiṣṇava theology. The practical benefit of this proposed ethic is immediately recognized when viewed in
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This article offers a theistically conscious biocentric environmental ethic that builds upon the scaffolding of Aldo Leopold’s land ethic with a synthesis of biocentric individualism, deep ecology, and Vaiṣṇava theology. The practical benefit of this proposed ethic is immediately recognized when viewed in light of innovation in biomimicry. Leopold set a fourfold standard for environmental ethics that included (1) acknowledging the evolution of consciousness needed to give rise to ecological conscience, (2) surpassing anthropocentric economic interests in ecological decision making, (3) cultivating individual responsibility and care for the land, and (4) offering a unified mental picture of the land to which individuals can relate. We defend his original work, from later interpretations where the communal aspect of the whole overshadows the uniqueness of the different parts. Transitioning from mitigating overemphasis on the value of the collective, we turn to biocentric individualism, which despite overvaluing the individual, identifies the practical necessity of a qualified moral decision-maker in discerning individual value within the web of nature. Deep ecology articulates self-realization as the qualification that this moral agent must possess. A theistically conscious biocentric environmental ethic balances the role of the individual and the collective by recognizing their irreducible interdependence as a simultaneous unity-in-diversity. This principle of dynamic oneness is introduced in deep ecology and fully matures in Vaiṣṇava theology. Individuals have particular functional value based on their unique role within the Organic Whole, and genuinely self-realized decision-makers can assess these values appropriately enough to discern how human civilization can flourish through harmonizing with nature. In many ways, this is the basis for biomimicry, a field where thoughtful people observe nature’s problem-solving and adapt those same strategies and design principles to humanity’s challenges. The development of biomimicry affirms the central thrust of the proposed environmental ethic, which can reciprocally inspire further biomimetic progress.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Divine Creativity and Participatory Cosmologies: Theological Perspectives on Science, Technology, and the Future of Humanity)
Open AccessArticle
Forgetting: Its Meaning in the Zhuangzi’s Philosophy of Self-Cultivation
by
Ziqiang Bai
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081037 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
The significance of forgetting in the Zhuangzi and its methodological significance for living a good life in particular has long been recognized by Zhuangzian scholars. However, with regard to what is really meant by forgetting, scholars are still far from reaching some clear
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The significance of forgetting in the Zhuangzi and its methodological significance for living a good life in particular has long been recognized by Zhuangzian scholars. However, with regard to what is really meant by forgetting, scholars are still far from reaching some clear consensus. Thus, with the aim of clarifying what is meant by forgetting in the Zhuangzi, I propose a wholistic understanding of forgetting in terms of the Zhuangzian conception of human self-cultivation. On the one hand, it involves an analysis of how forgetting is used negatively in the Zhuangzi to characterize and explain human fallenness. On the other hand, it also entails a careful analysis of all positive uses of forgetting in the text to mean our elimination of chengxin, orientation to the Dao, and fitness with all things in harmony.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soteriological and Ethical Dimensions of Forgetting in Asian Thought)
Open AccessArticle
Forgetting Oneself: Tsongkhapa and Severance
by
Jed Forman
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081036 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
This paper explores philosophical issues of personal identity and its connection to forgetting through the famed Tibetan Buddhist thinker Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). Tsongkhapa, in turn, follows in the Middle Way (madhyamaka) tradition of Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE) and Candrakīrti (c. 600–650 CE).
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This paper explores philosophical issues of personal identity and its connection to forgetting through the famed Tibetan Buddhist thinker Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). Tsongkhapa, in turn, follows in the Middle Way (madhyamaka) tradition of Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE) and Candrakīrti (c. 600–650 CE). Specifically, Tsongkhapa demonstrates that we can make sense of a consistent personal continuity despite the disruptions of forgetting and remembering. In so doing, he nuances the notion of personhood, revealing that it does not exist the way we think. I rely on a thought experiment derived from the hit TV show Severance to demonstrate the ramifications of his theory. By way of conclusion, I explore how Tsongkhapa’s analysis constitutes a notion of “positive forgetting”.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soteriological and Ethical Dimensions of Forgetting in Asian Thought)
Open AccessArticle
Not Just White and Liberal: Race, Secularity, and Visions of American Society
by
Michael John Paul Ryan, Daniel Yugeun Jang and Isaiah King
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081035 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
The following paper investigates the impact of racial differences on societal and political attitudes among secular individuals in the United States. Using data from the 2014 American Mosaic Project, our analyses focus on the relationships between secularity, race, and comfort with conservative Christian
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The following paper investigates the impact of racial differences on societal and political attitudes among secular individuals in the United States. Using data from the 2014 American Mosaic Project, our analyses focus on the relationships between secularity, race, and comfort with conservative Christian and atheist views, as well as opinions on whether the president should be religious. The results indicate substantial variation in these attitudes across racial groups, with secular non-Whites displaying unique sociopolitical preferences compared with their White counterparts. This challenges the oversimplified view of secularity as a predominantly White, liberal phenomenon, uncovering a more complex interplay between race, secularity, and sociopolitical orientations. These findings contribute to the sociology of religion by highlighting the diverse ways in which secular and religious identities intersect with race in contemporary American society, offering insights valuable for scholars, policymakers, and social activists in an increasingly secular age.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)
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Open AccessArticle
Catholic Reform in the Shadow of the Ottoman Wars—The Kingdom of Hungary and the Council of Trent
by
Viktor Kanász
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1034; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081034 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
Ecclesia semper reformanda est, as the medieval saying goes. This proved particularly true of the medieval church structure in the first half of the 16th century. The various movements of renewal slowly broke up the forms that had developed during the Middle Ages.
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Ecclesia semper reformanda est, as the medieval saying goes. This proved particularly true of the medieval church structure in the first half of the 16th century. The various movements of renewal slowly broke up the forms that had developed during the Middle Ages. In order to address the problems that arose, the Church responded to the old practice of reformatio in capite et in membris by convening a universal synod. The Council of Trent was called to renew the Church and to develop the necessary reform programme. Its convening and its work during its various sessions was a matter not only for Rome but for the whole universal Church, and accordingly it was attended by a varying number and in varying compositions of bishops and other leaders of the Western Church. Despite this, the Hungarian bishops were reluctant from the outset to participate in the work of the Council and to travel to Trent. In my study, I seek to answer the following questions: What was the reason for this reluctance? What was the impact of the spread of the Protestant Reformation and the Ottoman wars on the bishops, and was the case for defending against the Ottomans a rhetorical phrase or an actual reason for this? Which Hungarian bishops travelled to Trent, what activities did they carry out, and on the basis of their speeches and letters, what issues were they concerned with in connection of the renewal of the Church?
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecclesiology in Context: Exploring the Historical, Cultural, and Theological Dimensions of the Church)
Open AccessArticle
Inviting the Esoteric into the Exoteric: Contemporary Challenges in American Zen Buddhism
by
Malik J. M. Walker
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081033 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
As Zen Buddhism continues into its second century in the United States, the practices and philosophies transmitted have gone through major, though necessary transformations. At present, the vast majority of Zen temples and centers are “convert” communities that have over time adjusted language,
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As Zen Buddhism continues into its second century in the United States, the practices and philosophies transmitted have gone through major, though necessary transformations. At present, the vast majority of Zen temples and centers are “convert” communities that have over time adjusted language, ritual, and tradition to suit pastoral and theological needs. This article lays out a blueprint for a Zen public “theology” by discussing the transformation of the exoteric, physical practice of Zen to an esoteric practice that governs inner conduct and community cohesion. For this piece, esoteric is used less in a mystical capacity, but more in terms of referring to a closed community of practitioners and initiates. The transformation from a historically exoteric practice in Japan to a generally esoteric practice in the United States reconfigured the priorities for longstanding Zen communities, who were (and still tend to be) diffuse and dependent on lineage bearing. The esoteric character of Zen practice in the U.S. is a response to several challenges in a “western” market economy- informed society. Challenges from the mindfulness industry, its minority status in a broadly Abrahamic society, and the struggle to understand the notion of tradition while in dialog with the main Soto Zen tradition in Japan present unique hermeneutical categories for Zen in America, prompting a reckoning with the fundamental principles of Mahayana Buddhism and the tenuous pluralism operative in American society.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Faith in Action: Examining the Power and Purpose of a Public Theology in Contemporary Society)
Open AccessArticle
Trinitarian Interpretation of Ignatian Obedience: Hans Urs von Balthasar and Adrienne von Speyr
by
Endika Martínez
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081032 - 11 Aug 2025
Abstract
The following essay seeks to provide a theological consideration of the concept of obedience in the Ignatian tradition through the lens of Hans Urs von Balthasar. We will first argue that Balthasar can indeed be considered an Ignatian theologian based on his personal
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The following essay seeks to provide a theological consideration of the concept of obedience in the Ignatian tradition through the lens of Hans Urs von Balthasar. We will first argue that Balthasar can indeed be considered an Ignatian theologian based on his personal engagement with the spirituality of saint Ignatius. Secondly, we will offer an outline of his treatment of the theme of obedience as he links it to related concepts such as service, mission, indifference, and election. Finally, we will suggest that the influence of Adrienne von Speyr provoked a deepening of the Ignatian tradition toward a Trinitarian interpretation. We seek to conclude with a tentative proposal that Ignatian spirituality can serve a foundation to his creative treatment of the Trinity.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Theological Underpinnings of Ignatian Spirituality: From Historical Context to Contemporary Relevance)
Open AccessEditorial
In Defense of Studying Congregations
by
Kristina I. Lizardy-Hajbi
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081031 - 10 Aug 2025
Abstract
In the midst of penning this editorial, I was also working on an encyclopedic article on religious leadership that attempted to distinguish between societal understandings of “religion” and “spirituality [...]
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)
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Sultans, Merchants, and the Issue of Islamic Patronage on the Kazakh Steppe (1820s–1850s)
by
Nurlan Kabdylkhak
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1030; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081030 - 10 Aug 2025
Abstract
This article challenges historiographical interpretations that emphasize tsarist sponsorship of Muslim religious institutions on the nineteenth-century Kazakh steppe. Drawing on both tsarist archival records and local Muslim sources, it highlights the crucial role of Muslim patrons in fostering an Islamic transformation—or revival—marked by
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This article challenges historiographical interpretations that emphasize tsarist sponsorship of Muslim religious institutions on the nineteenth-century Kazakh steppe. Drawing on both tsarist archival records and local Muslim sources, it highlights the crucial role of Muslim patrons in fostering an Islamic transformation—or revival—marked by the rapid expansion of mosques, madrasas, and networks of Islamic scholars that connected the steppe to other centers of Islamic learning in the region. These patrons included influential political leaders, Muslim tsarist administrators, and merchants such as Qunanbay Oskenbay-ughli, Tinibay Kauken-ughli, and Jolaman Jandarbek-ughli, who financed Islamic institutions while navigating increasingly restrictive tsarist religious policies. Paradoxically, while the tsarist regime imposed legal constraints on Islam, its broader policies inadvertently contributed to the rise of these Muslim benefactors by enabling their accumulation of wealth, status, and political leverage.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Historiography of Muslim Communities in Central Asia)
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John Allegro and the Psychedelic Mysteries Hypothesis
by
Richard S. Ascough
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081029 - 9 Aug 2025
Abstract
John Allegro’s The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross posits that early Christianity derived from fertility cults involving psychedelic mushroom use. Though widely discredited by scholars when it was first published, the theory persists in popular culture and entheogenic discourse. This article evaluates the
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John Allegro’s The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross posits that early Christianity derived from fertility cults involving psychedelic mushroom use. Though widely discredited by scholars when it was first published, the theory persists in popular culture and entheogenic discourse. This article evaluates the scholarly reception, methodological flaws, and enduring cultural impact of Allegro’s thesis, particularly its role in the broader psychedelic mysteries hypothesis. Although Allegro’s linguistic methodology has been rejected by most experts, his work has contributed to renewed interest in the role of entheogens in religious traditions, with some scholars attempting to salvage Allegro’s intuitive insights while distancing themselves from his linguistic excesses. Due to its foundational methodological flaws, however, Allegro’s work is best viewed as a historical curiosity rather than a reliable source for contemporary entheogenic scholarship.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Origins of Western Psychedelia: Exploring Allegro’s The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross)
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Transhumanism, Religion, and Techno-Idolatry: A Derridean Response to Tirosh-Samuelson
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Michael G. Sherbert
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081028 - 9 Aug 2025
Abstract
This paper critiques Hava Tirosh-Samuelson’s view of transhumanism as techno-idolatry by applying Derrida’s notion of the unconditional “to-come” and the generalized fetish. While acknowledging Tirosh-Samuelson’s stance that fetishes should not be reduced to idols, I argue that she fails to extend this understanding
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This paper critiques Hava Tirosh-Samuelson’s view of transhumanism as techno-idolatry by applying Derrida’s notion of the unconditional “to-come” and the generalized fetish. While acknowledging Tirosh-Samuelson’s stance that fetishes should not be reduced to idols, I argue that she fails to extend this understanding to transhumanism, instead depicting its fetishes as fixed idols. Drawing on Derrida’s notion of the generalized fetish, I argue that religious objects in Judaism (like the shofar or tefillin) function not as objects of worship but as material mediators of divine relation—tangible signs that carry symbolic, spiritual, and covenantal meaning while gesturing toward the divine without claiming to contain or represent it. Similarly, in transhumanism, brain-computer interfaces and AI act as fetishes that extend human capability and potential while remaining open to future reinterpretation. These fetishes, reflecting Derrida’s idea of the unconditional “to-come,” resist closure and allow for ongoing change and reinterpretation. By reducing transhumanism to mere idolatry, Tirosh-Samuelson overlooks how technological fetishes function as dynamic supplements, open to future possibilities and ongoing reinterpretation, which can be both beneficial and harmful to humanity now and in the future.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and/of the Future)
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The Self-Cultivation Realm and Natural Value in Zhuangzi’s Concept of Zhenren 真人
by
Yue Sun and Yuehua Chen
Religions 2025, 16(8), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081027 - 8 Aug 2025
Abstract
Adopting a comparative philosophical approach and engaging in textual analysis, this paper reveals that the concept of Zhenren 真人—as the embodiment of Zhuangzi’s ideal personality—explicates the dual connotations and axiological foundations of “naturalness” (ziran 自然) as the central paradigm of his spiritual
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Adopting a comparative philosophical approach and engaging in textual analysis, this paper reveals that the concept of Zhenren 真人—as the embodiment of Zhuangzi’s ideal personality—explicates the dual connotations and axiological foundations of “naturalness” (ziran 自然) as the central paradigm of his spiritual realm theory. In the Daoist context, naturalness encompasses two interrelated dimensions: the ontological “naturalness of the Dao” and the existential “naturalness of the Zhenren”. These dimensions are integrated through the practical principles of “assisting all things” and “accommodating their inherent tendencies.” At the level of realm discourse, Zhuangzi’s Zhenren stands apart from the rational, truth-seeking tradition of Western philosophy by pursuing naturalness-oriented cultivation. This gives rise to a distinctive realm system characterized by a psychological state of “equanimity and clarity”, an axiological orientation toward “primordial simplicity”, and a lived experience marked by “serene non-action”. Rooted in naturalness, this mode of self-cultivation not only offers a new theoretical framework for interpreting the ideal personality of the Daoist but also sheds light on the unique ethical significance of naturalness in Chinese philosophical discourse on morality.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comparative Study of the Concepts of Self-Transcendence, Value and Power in the Works of Emerson and Zhuang Zi)
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