A Study of Spiritual Expression in Totemic Art: Based on a Multidimensional Analysis of Sublime Beauty, Humanistic Beauty and Artistic Beauty

Abstract

Totemic art, as the fundamental medium of the spiritual realm of primordial societies, employs its distinctive symbolic system to communicate and articulate humanity’s spiritual understanding and sacred quest for nature, the cosmos, and the essence of existence. This article centers on totemic art, which, through the three dimensions of sublime beauty, humanistic beauty, and artistic beauty, establishes a spiritual dialogue system between primitive tribes and supernatural forces. The core principle is the aesthetic metamorphosis of the spiritual realm through material carriers. It explores how it functions as a potent medium for articulating both personal and communal spirituality: sublime beauty manifests and materializes the intangible divine force through the “presenting the unpresentable,” thus establishing the spiritual basis of primal reverence; Humanistic beauty, rooted in familial connections, the celebration of life, and community unity, facilitates the awakening and elevation of both individual and collective consciousness, promoting the integration and symbiosis of personal spirituality and communal sanctity; Behind the evolution of styles and the characteristics of anti-aesthetics in the artistic beauty, there remains the fundamental logic of serving spiritual expression. Research indicates that totemic art serves as the fundamental aesthetic practice of primitive societies for comprehending the world, engaging with the divine, and achieving mental tranquility. The three dimensions of its spiritual expression collectively form a spiritual monument of early human civilization.

1. Introduction

Totem, as the core symbol of the spiritual world of the primitive people, is not only a simple clan mark or decorative pattern, but also a complex spiritual symbol system integrating the cosmology, life view, and social structure. Grounded in animism, they represented a focused manifestation of primitive societies’ reverence and inquiry into the forces of nature, the enigmas of existence, and the destiny of their community. Totemic art, with its strong visual impact and profound spiritual connotations, has become a core bridge connecting the visible and invisible worlds and the mundane and sacred realms. This study examines the three principal aesthetic dimensions of sublime beauty, humanistic beauty, and artistic beauty present in totemic art. It amalgamates these three perspectives for the first time into a framework for examining the spiritual functions of totemic art. By integrating theories from art anthropology, religious studies, and aesthetics, it thoroughly examines how these components collaboratively shape and articulate the distinctive perceptions and expressions of primitive societies concerning spirituality and the sacred.

2. Totemism, Totemic Art and Spiritual Expression

2.1. Totemism

Karl Marx once said, “At the same time it is consciousness of nature, which first appears to men as a completely alien, all-powerful, and unassailable force, with which men’s relations are purely animal and by which they are overawed like beasts” (Marx and Engels 1969, p. 32). This passage elucidates the relationship between primitive humans and the natural world. During that period, humans were as powerless as animals against nature, compelled to unconditionally accept its formidable force. When primitive humans faced disasters from unusual natural phenomena, experienced impotence in activities like hunting, and confronted survival pressures, they began to seek a sacred power capable of overcoming nature’s threats, subsequently praying to and venerating it. Religion emerged along this trajectory, with primitive societies centering their spiritual beliefs around totemism.1

It is well known that the word totem is taken from the Ojibwa, an Algonquin language of the region to the north of the Great Lakes of northern America. The expression ototeman, which means roughly, “he is a relative of mine” (Lévi-Strauss 1962, p. 18). Primitive societies believed that clans were associated with specific animals, plants, or objects, which they esteemed as protectors and symbols of their clans, holding them in high reverence. These items served as the totems of the clans. The general notion of totemism was introduced in anthropology by McLennan (1869, pp. 194–216). In The Worship of Animals and Plants, McLennan defined totemism as the oldest animist belief whilst granting it universal validity (Palacio-Pérez 2012, pp. 682–714). The research findings on totems constitute a significant theoretical advancement in anthropology during the 20th century. Totems represent a rudimentary belief system universally found among early humans. Over time, totems transformed into a rudimentary ideology, profoundly infiltrating all facets of primitive human existence and exerting a significant impact on cultural development. They establish the basis of primitive culture and serve as the archetype of contemporary human culture (Zhu 2002, p. 2). For instance, the French sociologist Émile Durkheim contended that, in comparison to animism and nature worship, the totem system constitutes a “more fundamental and more primitive cult” (Durkheim 1995, p. 85) and is the fundamental form of religion. D.E. Khaytun, a Soviet scholar, noted that “Totemism is the religion of primitive clans, characterized by the belief that the clan descends from a mythical ancestor—part human, part beast, part human, part plant, or an inanimate entity, or a being, animal, or plant capable of transformation” (Khaytun 2004, p. 72). Consequently, totemism can be considered a significant manifestation and mode of veneration of the sacred and spiritual by primitive societies. Since the late 18th century, archaeological and anthropological evidence has consistently emerged, uncovering analogous totemic phenomena across Europe, Asia, North Africa, South America, Polynesia, and Eskimo communities. Academics have started to acknowledge that the system they are examining possesses “some universal significance” (Durkheim 1995, p. 120). As research progressed, anthropologists found that totems served not only as symbols of emotional connection and spiritual conviction among primitive tribal groups, but also led to the establishment of various taboos, including “totem killing” and “exogamy.”2 These taboos functioned as the “laws” of primitive societies, preserving interpersonal relationships among tribal members and governing their conduct. For instance, Chinese anthropologist Cen Jiawu, drawing from extensive historical data, identified four principal characteristics of totemism.

1. Primitive peoples’ social groups give names to specific animals and plants because they think they are the group’s ancestors or are blood relatives. 2. The group’s members hold the animals and plants that represent the totem ancestors in high regard, and nobody dares to kill, maim, or otherwise damage them. There is a specific penalty for breaking this regulation. 3. People who belong to the same totem group share the same views about the totem and can be considered a full community. The same totem beliefs are expressed in the same way via body ornaments, everyday kitchenware, and cemetery and home decorations. 4. After reaching a certain age, men and women participate in a totem initiation rite. Furthermore, an absolute exogamy system is in place, and marriage between men and women in the same totem group is forbidden.

(Cen 1986, p. 1)

It is not difficult to see that these characteristics, in addition to emphasizing the belief in totems, are also reflected in the social life of primitive people. Therefore, some scholars believe that totemism is not only a religious belief but also a social system of primitive people. In his research on Iroquois clan organization, American anthropologist Morgan noted that “the phratry, among the Iroquois, was partly for social and partly for religious objects” (Morgan 1964, p. 1). Morgan posited that the Iroquois clan constituted a cohesive religious and social entity, asserting that totemism, as a fundamental aspect of primitive tribal existence, should adhere to this principle. Even more to the point, British classical anthropologist Frazer noted that “Totemism is not only a religious belief but also a social structure” (Frazer 1887, p. 3). He posits that, from a religious standpoint, individuals possess an inherent sense of reverence and safeguarding towards totems. From a sociocultural standpoint, totems signify the connections among members of a singular tribe while also delineating the relationships that ought to exist between disparate tribes. Cen Jiawu, Morgan, and Frazer all assert that the social characteristics of totemism hold equal significance to its religious beliefs. Despite ongoing debates3 in academic circles regarding the fundamental nature of totemism—where some contend it is chiefly a religious belief while others assert it is primarily a social institution—it is evident that the two are not mutually exclusive. Historical evidence and anthropological perspectives indicate that religious beliefs and social institutions are intrinsically linked in the genesis of totemism.

2.2. Totemic Art

The advent of totemism catalyzed significant human development and profoundly impacted the emergence of the “aesthetic sense,” a more advanced human emotion. As Qiu Zhensheng said:

Totemism, on the one hand, promoted the emergence of artistic forms and standardized existing ones, thereby enhancing their expressiveness and appeal. On the other hand, it gradually freed primitive people from their natural state and led them to transition to a social state, creating the preconditions for human aesthetic activities.

(Qiu 1994, pp. 73–91)

From a temporal standpoint, archaeological evidence indicates that totemism originated in the Middle Paleolithic period and thrived during the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. The extensive cave paintings and sculptures from the Paleolithic era found in Europe validate that totem rituals and dances were varied and dynamic during that period (He 2008, p. 70). With the knowledge that Paleolithic people were responsible for works of art, it became essential to explain, somehow, how such an apparently “advanced” activity could have existed among such obviously “primitive” people (Abadía 2006, p. 124). We know that the emergence of art is directly linked to aesthetic consciousness, and a wealth of historical materials further prove that the origin of art is closely tied to totemism. Boas once discussed whether it was the social activities of totemism that drove the development of art, or whether art drove the development of totemism. He concluded that, “Our observations make it seem plausible that the particular symbolic development of art would not have occurred, if the totemic ideas had been absent” (Boas 1922, pp. 280–81). Zheng Yuanzhe also stated, “From the preceding discussion, I am compelled to draw the following preliminary conclusion: Totemic consciousness or concepts were the profound motivation behind the earliest artistic activities, and art originated from the primitive religious concept of totemism” (Zheng 1992, p. 48). Zhang Shengbing also mentioned in his research that totemic art originated alongside the widespread totemism that characterized primitive clan societies. This inevitably led to fundamental differences between this art form and today’s art, both in terms of content and form (Zhang 2004, pp. 62–65). Today’s art forms, such as painting and sculpture, can mostly find corresponding traces in totemism activities. “Some of them were born from totemism activities, some were standardized within totemism, and some are embodiments of totems themselves. Consequently, scholars define the primitive art shaped by totemic beliefs as ‘totemic art.’” (Qiu 1994, p. 77). For example, Romanian scholar Tănase pointed out, “Totemism stimulated primitive art, especially the creation of images of totems, plants, and animals” (Tănase 1984, p. 5). Chinese scholar Cen Jiawu stated, “Art is an ideology that conforms to specific production relations, and its mode of production is inextricably linked to the mode of material production. The emergence, development, and extinction of totemic art remain entirely incomprehensible without the discovery of totemic facts” (Cen 1986, p. 1). It can be seen that numerous scholars categorize the artistic endeavors originating from totemism during the totemic period as “totemic art.”

From this viewpoint, totemism, totemic art, and aesthetic consciousness are interrelated and mutually enhancing. The esteemed Chinese aesthetician Zhu Di also examined the interconnection among these three concepts. He held the conviction that:

Totems and taboos significantly impact the evolution of aesthetics. This influence can be categorized into two components. The initial aspect is practical: totemism directly contributed to the development of various art forms linked to this belief system, or to the standardization of pre-existing art forms. The alternative is spiritual. If totem taboos were the earliest legal codes for humanity, they would undoubtedly have a significant impact on the human spirit. This initial code of laws transformed barbarians from a natural condition into a moral condition, facilitating the progression to an aesthetic condition.

(Zhu 1988, p. 98)

Mr. Zhu Di’s elucidation aligns with the principles of historical progression. Totemic art originated from totemism. Adherents employed art to materialize totems and sacred objects, enhancing their allure to fulfill the psychological requirements of the worshipers. Hegel stated, “The pure appearance of art has the advantage that it points through and beyond itself and itself hints at something spiritual of which it is to give us an idea” (Hegel 1975, p. 9). Totemic art visually and spiritually reinforced the sacred psychology and spiritual expression of primitive humans, thereby intensifying the religious essence of totemism. Aesthetic awareness also evolved during this process, allowing it to manifest and attain autonomy. Secondly, the advent of totemism supported the operation and evolution of human social structures. Mr. Zhu Di’s reference to the transition from a natural state to a moral state was, in fact, the shift from “natural man” to “social man.” This process significantly enhanced human psychology and consciousness, establishing the groundwork for the development of aesthetic consciousness. Totemic art also served a social function in primitive clans, such as differentiating between various clans and marking coming-of-age ceremonies. The ideas and concepts of primitive peoples were continually refined and evolved through social practices, which were subsequently manifested in Totemic art, thereby influencing its transformation and variation. Consequently, in the context of totemism, totemic art is involved in both religious activities and social life, and has thus become an important part of the social life of primitive peoples. Totemic art has consequently become a significant aspect of the existence of primitive societies. Mr. S. Brent Plate astutely observed that aesthetic experience cannot be bracketed out as an autonomous realm of human religious existence because it always exists in a dialogical relation with language, cognitive capacities, religious practices, political ideologies, technological developments, and economic conditions (Plate 2005, p. 4).

2.3. The Spiritual Expression of Totemic Art

Totemic art represents the fundamental expression of humanity’s early spiritual realm. It employs concrete or abstract symbols as a medium to establish a comprehensive spiritual cognitive framework. These artistic expressions represent not only the tangible embodiment of primitive religion but also a crucial component of clan social dynamics, serving as a conduit through which our ancestors comprehended the cosmos, the genesis of life, and the connection between humanity and deities. This is a comprehensive analysis derived from pertinent archaeological artifacts from China and the West (

Table 1. Archaeological Discoveries of Animism in the East and West.

Performance Dimensions	Chinese Archaeological Evidence	Western Archaeological Evidence	Common Essence
Nature worship	Records of mountain and river worship in oracle bone inscriptions	Stonehenge healing worship, Greek Dionysus natural rituals	Personification and ritualization of natural phenomena
Ancestral spirits	Human sacrifice system in Yinxu, ancestor worship in bronze inscriptions of the Zhou dynasty	Mycenaean shaft grave burial goods, Roman household guardian altar	The soul of the deceased continues to exist and influence the living
Witchcraft practices	Shang Dynasty bronze vessel casting rituals, oracle bone divination system	Cave hunting witchcraft ruins, Mediterranean harvest rituals	Interaction between humans and spirits through rituals
Spirit vessels	Bronze ritual vessels from the Shang and Zhou dynasties as mediums for communication with the spirits	As a sacred object, the Churinga Flint as the “stone of the soul”	Certain substances contain spiritual power

).

At the inception of human civilization, primordial forebears confronted an enigmatic and capricious natural environment, cultivating a spiritual perspective rooted in animism. British anthropologist Edward Tylor systematically advanced this thesis, considering it the foundation of all religious beliefs and the central principle of diverse religious consciousnesses. Taylor characterizes animism as “the belief in souls that surpass the physical existence of living entities, along with various spiritual beings,” and points out that “Animism is, in fact, the groundwork of the Philosophy of Religion, from that of savages up to that of civilized men” (Tylor 1871, p. 385). Taylor posited that deities were perceived as governing natural phenomena and human existence, including the afterlife, while also facilitating communication with humanity. Human conduct may either appease or incite the deities’ wrath. This conviction inevitably resulted in human veneration of the deities or appeals for compassion. Consequently, animism encompasses beliefs in souls, the afterlife, and both major and minor deities, ultimately resulting in distinct forms of worship.

The rich archaeological findings in China offer systematic proof of animism. For instance, regarding the veneration of natural spirits, the Shang Dynasty had established a pantheon of deities associated with heaven and earth. Oracle bone inscriptions, such as “conducting bonfires to venerate the Yellow River” (Liao Yu He 燎於河) and “seeking blessings from the mountain” (Qi Yu Yue 祈於嶽), indicate that mountains and rivers were attributed with divine significance. The book of Zuo Zhuan-First Year of Zhao Gong (Zuo Zhuan Zhao Gong Yuan Nian 左傳·昭公元年) clearly records, “When faced with disasters such as floods, droughts, and epidemics, people would worship the gods of mountains and rivers. When faced with snow, frost, wind, and rain out of season, people would worship the gods of the sun, moon, and stars.” 山川之神, 則水旱癘疫之災, 於是乎禜之; 日月星辰之神, 則雪霜風雨之不時, 於是乎禜之 (Zuo 2012, p. 1570). The book of Li Ji-Ritual Law (Li Ji Ji Fa 禮記•祭法) also records, “Any mountain, forest, valley, or hill that can produce clouds, cause wind and rain, or display unusual phenomena can be called a god.” 山林川谷丘陵, 能出雲, 為風雨, 見怪物, 皆曰神 (Wang 2016, p. 600). The artistic expression of natural spiritualization is evident in the decorative motifs of Shang and Zhou dynasty bronze ware, where symbols like thunder, clouds, and dragons represent spiritual manifestations of natural forces.

In terms of spiritual cognition related to life, the painted pottery basin with human face and fish patterns from the Banpo site blends human faces with fish bodies, thereby creating the totemic image of “human face and fish body.” Depicting their ancestors—the totem—as half-human, half-fish figures indicates that they believed themselves to be the descendants of the union between humans and fish (Gao 1984, pp. 63–67). This suggests a mutual interpenetration of life between the “fish people” or ethnic group and the fish totem, reflecting the kinship between humans and totemic species. The painted pottery featuring human faces and fish patterns discovered at the Beishouling site depicts a struggle between a bird and a fish, with the bird pecking at the fish’s tail, and the two evenly matched, it is difficult to tell who will win (Zhao 2000, pp. 13–15). It shows the order of “both struggle and coexistence” between the two clan totems, with the bird’s beak tightly clasping the fish’s tail, symbolizing the unity of survival competition and ecological balance. Within the cultural framework of China’s Li minority group, frogs, noted for their prolific reproductive capacity, are esteemed as symbols of maternal divine potency. Stone ancestral vessels, resembling male genitalia, embody the spiritual power of ancestral deities. Collectively, they represent a symbol of the life cycle. The sacrificial rituals documented in oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the Shang Dynasty people believed souls necessitated material vessels for spiritual communication with deities. Scholars have interpreted the animal-face patterns on bronze ritual vessels as “spiritual medium totems for communicating with deities.” The bronze casting process was inherently spiritual; the extensive bronze casting workshop unearthed at the Xindian site in Anyang featured sacrificial pits and oracle bone remnants, affirming the integration of “technical production” and “shamanic rituals.”

Western archaeological findings include numerous remains that strongly align with Taylor’s animistic theory, with cave paintings serving as the most illustrative example. The cave paintings at Lascaux, France, and Altamira, Spain, vividly illustrate the magical rituals predominantly influenced by animism. These subterranean caves, challenging to access, house an array of paintings illustrating wild buffalo impaled by spears, kneeling herds of deer, and various other depictions. Sacrificial piles and animal remains are frequently discovered beneath the murals. These images were evidently not produced “for art’s sake,” but functioned as ritualistic vessels aimed at attaining hunting success through the mimicry of witchcraft. Primitive hunters posited that depicting wounded prey could potentially affect the hunt’s outcome, illustrating Taylor’s principle of “like attracts like.” Some caves exhibit hybrid human–animal figures, like the “bird-headed shaman” in Lascaux, indicating the intermediary function of shamans in witchcraft. This amalgamation of human and animal forms directly embodies the concept of the “oneness of life” in animism.

The decoration of tools from the late Paleolithic era reveals the emergence of spiritual awareness. Bone carvings from the Aurignacian culture exhibit recurring sawtooth and spiral motifs, which scholars interpret as abstract depictions of “water waves” and “snakes,” indicating a veneration for the spiritual potency of nature. The megalithic structures of Stonehenge in Neolithic Britain are thought to have therapeutic properties. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous human bones exhibiting pathological injuries in the area, substantiating its role as a “spiritual healing center.” Prehistoric burial practices in Europe directly indicate a belief in the soul’s immortality. The Neanderthal burial site at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in France contains deceased individuals interred in a fetal position, alongside flint tools and animal bones, indicating a preparation for an afterlife. The spiritual expression of totemic art represents the cognitive framework established by humans during the Dark Ages to delineate the relationship among humanity, nature, and the supernatural. Totemic art, as humanity’s primordial spiritual language, serves as both a manifestation of a particular era and a determinant of the continuity of civilization’s logic. In light of modern civilization’s ecological crises and spiritual disconnection, it is essential to reassess the spiritual significance of totemic art. This fundamental and universal wisdom may serve as the spiritual foundation for restoring the harmonious relationship between modern humans and nature.

3. The Sublime Beauty of Totemic Art: Reverence for Life and the Sacred

In the totemic traditions of early societies, totems were perceived as both ancestral figures with blood relations to the clan and deities capable of invoking benefits and averting calamities for the clan. Consequently, the paramount elements of prehistoric peoples’ existence and survival were contingent upon their totems. According to Feuerbach, “This dependence forms the basis of religion” (Feuerbach 2019, p. 14). This totemistic devotion is the primary reason many historians consider totemism the initial manifestation and even the genesis of religion. As mentioned above, totemic art originated alongside totemism. The sublime emotions generated by this fervent devotion to nature and the divine are an important feature of the aesthetic appeal of totemic art in this context. As Zheng Yuanzhe said, “During the totemism period, primitive people were unable to completely control nature, but they had already gained their first spiritual enlightenment. This sense of the sublime for nature was only a step away from the beauty of totemic art” (Zheng 1992, p. 159).

What prompted prehistoric people to venerate a natural thing as a totem? The rationale resides in its capacity to evoke the spiritual and holy sentiments of primitive peoples. A totem’s principal attribute is its function as a “symbol or device” (Morgan 1964, p. 170) that differentiates oneself and one’s clan from others, possessing clear practical value. For early societies, the totemic picture represented the utmost sacredness. When a specific animal or plant was venerated as a totem, it transformed into an object of reverence for early societies. Nonetheless, this does not indicate that these natural objects exhibit any distinctive qualities relative to other species; they are merely commonplace goods. This indicates that their sanctity does not originate from the natural items themselves. What is more essential is that this animal or plant can elicit a profound sense of veneration in individuals. Recognition as a sacred object might evoke similar emotions in adherents. The manifestation of this emotion confers holiness upon the sacred thing. Consequently, it is plausible to conceive that throughout the veneration of their totems, they were not revering anthropomorphized animals, but rather human beings that had been animalized—the esteemed spirits of their forebears (Hang 2009, p. 120). This explains why the representation of the totem, albeit lacking life, can yet evoke the prayers and veneration of primitive peoples during ritualistic practices, on totem poles, and in quotidian existence. Consequently, the significance lies in the holiness intrinsic to the totem object, rather than the object itself. In essence, nothing is intrinsically sacred or holy, yet nothing is inherently incapable of attaining sacredness or holiness. Durkheim asserted, “The sacredness exhibited by the thing is not implicated in the intrinsic properties of the thing: It is added to them” (Durkheim 1995, p. 230). Primitive societies venerated the sanctity represented by the totem, rather than the totem itself.

The prevalent interpretation of this holiness derives from Taylor’s “animism,” a doctrine focused on the notion of the soul. Over time, the soul evolved into spirits or gods with superhuman powers, and they may obtain the sight of spectral beings, from whom they look to gain spiritual knowledge and even worldly power (Tylor 1871, p. 402). This perspective has been contested. Durkheim rejected the notion that the concept of the sacred stemmed from primitive peoples’ inability to differentiate between the living and the non-living, nor did he endorse the idea that it was a product of their daily delusional states. Durkheim asserted that this holiness derives from a genuine but imperceptible “force.” This enigmatic energy is generally perceived by indigenous populations, as demonstrated by terms such as “Wakan” among American tribes, “Mana” in Melanesia, and “Orenda” within the Iroquois, all of which reference this elusive force (Durkheim 1995, pp. 203–5).

The joyful and enthusiastic condition of primitive people during their assembly activities, also known as a “corroboree” (Durkheim 1995, p. 217), is the source of this mysterious power, according to a wealth of anthropological information. In “The Northern Tribes of Central Australia,” Spencer and Gillen documented the Warlungu people’s religious rite, “A very wild and savage scene that is impossible to describe in words was created by the billowing smoke, the flaming torches, the sparks flying everywhere, and a group of individuals shouting and dancing as their bodies were covered with odd paint” (Spencer and Gillen 1904, p. 391). In this moment of profound joy and exhilaration, prehistoric humans disengaged from the mundane world and transcended into a hallowed, spiritually infused domain. In this condition, the quotidian existence of primitive individuals was infused with sanctity, momentarily attaining “oneness” with the deities they venerated in ceremonies. The modest condition of uncultivated primeval individuals in nature attained a remarkable elevation, reaching an unparalleled pinnacle. The unique energy that allowed primitive individuals to attain this state of ecstatic frenzy was referred to as the power of “Wakan” and “Mana.” In other words, this force experienced in collective pleasure allowed prehistoric humanity to transcend the commonplace and encounter spirituality. Nevertheless, the problem resides in the discontinuity of such gatherings. In contrast to the monotonous existence of daily survival, religious ceremonies, including sacrifices and assemblies, were performed periodically. Consequently, after the assembly ended, the euphoria and elation—or the hallowed feeling of connection with the divine—felt during the event would slowly diminish. To preserve the continuity of these emotions and perpetually recall the exalted sensation of transcending their humble status and attaining “oneness” with the divine, primitive peoples required pictures and symbols that might inspire this sense of sanctity. Simultaneously, in contrast to the abstract and intangible essence of sacred power, these symbols and pictures needed to be solid and palpable, thereby giving rise to totemic art.

3.1. The Beast-Face Patterns on Chinese Bronze Ware

Totemic art converts the uncontrollable forces of nature into a tangible “sacred presence” through exaggerated proportions (the vertical elongation of totem poles), threatening imagery (the ferocious faces of African masks), and abstract symbols (spiral patterns representing cosmic energy). The beast-face patterns on Chinese bronze wares (Figure 1), particularly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, are a visual embodiment of archaic religious beliefs and spiritual ideas. They are exemplary specimens of bronze ware embellishment, epitomizing the pinnacle of this art form. As we all know, the primary importance of sacrificial rituals is in establishing an unrealistic environment inside the real world, which facilitates a connection with the divine realm, hence transmitting human desires and divine directives. The artifacts present in this context (copper vessels utilized for sacrificial ceremonies throughout the Shang and Zhou dynasties), particularly those adorned with pictorial embellishments, fundamentally function to provide an environment conducive to the manifestation of non-realistic deities (Hang 2009, p. 124). Consequently, the primary aim of the beast-face motif is to establish a connection between humans and deities. The formal language is replete with analogies for the enigmatic divine, amalgamating traits of numerous formidable creatures: oxen, sheep, deer, tigers, dragons, and others (Liu 2001, p. 156). It consolidates the sacred qualities of diverse animals into a higher-dimensional spiritual vessel, representing the amalgamation of divine power based on the belief in the spirituality of all entities, and deeply reflecting the ancient peoples’ reverence for supernatural forces and their quest for understanding the spiritual realm.

3.2. The Churinga, a Sacred Object of the Australian Aborigines

Comparable expressions are also present in Western anthropological literature. The Churinga (Figure 2) is a pivotal sacred artifact for the Arrernte and other Aboriginal Australian communities, usually an oval-shaped stone or wooden plaque adorned with elaborate totemic designs. The predominant theory posits that the Churinga functions as a spiritual repository for the souls of ancestors. It serves as both a concrete vessel for clan totems and a significant embodiment of fundamental spiritual expression.

Spencer and Gillen noted in their book that the Aranda tribe, the dominating tribe among the primitive tribes in central Australia, always employs a unique ceremonial instrument in their ceremonies. It is known as the “spirit store” by the Aranda tribe. In size and shape, they differ greatly. The smallest will be perhaps three or four inches in length; the longest, five feet or more. In the Aranda tribe, all, with very rare exceptions, are more or less flattened and either oval (rarely roughly circular) in outline or, most usually, elongate with either end tapering to a more or less rounded point (Spencer and Gillen 1968, p. 143). Lévy-Bruhl once pointed out that every totemic group has its own, and from the standpoint of logical thought, it would be very difficult to define exactly what churinga are or are not. The external souls of individuals, the vehicles of ancestral spirits, and possibly the bodies of these ancestors themselves; extracts of totemic essence; reservoirs of vitality—they are all of these in turn and simultaneously (Lévy-Bruhl 1966, p. 77). It is clear that Churinga is the most sacred relic for the Aranda people.

Churinga are regarded as the abodes of ancestor spirits, and their spiritual essence is evident in the animistic perspective. Each churinga is associated with the spirit of a certain ancestor. The Aranda people hold that their ancestors traversed the land during the creation period, and that their spirits were ultimately imbued into the churinga. Churinga’s designs frequently illustrate totems; however, they are not realistic. Instead, abstract geometric forms such as concentric circles, undulating lines, and spirals are employed to elevate natural phenomena into emblems of cosmic order. In the rite, the elders anointed the Churinga’s patterns to invoke the spiritual power of their ancestors, akin to the manner in which shamans strike drums to engage with the supernatural realm. Consequently, through the material carrier of Churinga as a hub, they established a connection between the visible realm (human civilization) and the invisible realm (the ancestral spirit world), facilitating communication among “individuals, objects, and spirits.” Whether it is the beast-face pattern on bronze ware or the Churinga with abstract geometric patterns, as totemic art, they can express the sacred things deeply engraved in the minds of primitive people as an external visible object, presenting the unpresentable.

3.3. Sublime: Presenting the Unpresentable

Totemic art served as the outward expression of this divine power. The totem picture is apparent, yet it signifies an elusive and enigmatic being (Zhu 2002, p. 5). This enigmatic force, which is imperceptible and intangible yet undeniably real, now possesses a tangible and apparent embodiment. Totemic art renders the unseen perceptible, aligning with Lyotard’s notion of sublime aesthetics. Lyotard’s sublime aesthetics, primarily shaped by Burke and Kant’s sublime theories, represents an evolution and elaboration of their concepts, with Kant’s theory exerting a significant effect on Lyotard. Kant posited that the encounter with something so vast that it defies reproduction elicits a sensation of the sublime. Kant distinguishes between two types of sublime emotions found in nature: “the mathematically and the dynamically sublime” (Kant 1987, p. 101). The former pertains to entities of immense scale, such as towering mountains and tumultuous oceans, whereas the latter denotes an overwhelming force, exemplified by thunderclouds with lightning and thunder, or eruptive volcanoes. When individuals encounter these vast and formidable occurrences, they struggle to comprehend them rationally, resulting in sensations of unease or even anguish. But primarily “because they raise the soul’s fortitude above its usual middle range and allow us to discover in ourselves an ability to resist which is of a quite different kind and which gives us the courage [to believe] that we could be a match for nature’s seeming omnipotence” (Kant 1987, p. 120). In short, the sublime is the distressing sensation of being unable to comprehend or depict concepts encountered through the imagination; nonetheless, the constraints of imagination provoke the elevation of reason, resulting in a feeling of pleasure. Consequently, it can be asserted that phenomena that elicit the sublime are those that elude rational representation. Lyotard received a significant “legacy” from Kant’s idea of the sublime, articulating the sublime as “present that there is something that is not presentable.” The sublime is not a pleasure; it is a pleasure of pain: we fail to present the absolute, and that is a displeasure, but we know that we have to present it, that the faculty of feeling or imagining is called on to bring about the sensible (the image). To present what reason can conceive, and even if it cannot manage to do this, and we suffer from this, a pure pleasure is felt from this tension (Lyotard 1991, pp. 125–26).

Primitive societies evidently perceived a distinct sanctity in assemblies and religious rituals, and thereby used diverse symbols and imagery to convey this sacredness. These images represent totemic art, which effectively conveys the primal people’s yearning for and quest for the sacred, becoming the focus of their veneration. Totemic art accomplished the “presentation of the unpresentable” to manifest the sublime. From this viewpoint, the representation of totemic art aligns with the framework of sublime aesthetics as articulated by Lyotard. However, it is important to clarify that reinterpreting the totemic culture of the past through Lyotard’s concept of sublime aesthetics does not imply a historical relationship, genesis, or continuation between the two. The form and attributes of beauty manifested in totemic art align with Lyotard’s concept of the sublime in aesthetics. The distinction lies in the fact that the sublime beauty of totemic art predominantly conveys primitive societies’ comprehension and veneration of the sacred.

4. The Humanistic Beauty of Totemic Art: The Awakening and Transcendence of Individual and Collective Consciousness

If the sublime beauty of totemic art primarily expresses reverence for the sacred, then what we need to explore next is the reflection of primitive humans in totemic art. As social practices continued to develop, primitive humans gradually recognized the importance of the individual and the collective, which was reflected in various totemism rituals, especially in the “humanistic beauty” expressed in totemic art. For primitive people, their aesthetic consciousness was generated precisely through life activities mediated by social practices, and therefore, it was necessarily humanistic. The aesthetic consciousness they expressed in the anthropomorphization of totems constituted the main content of the aesthetic concept of totemic societies (Zheng 1992, p. 136). The humanistic beauty evident in totemic art was primarily manifested in representations of “humans and gods in a unified form” or “humans and animals in a unified form.” The “anthropomorphization” of totem images means the awakening of the self-consciousness of primitive people. They no longer blindly depend on the natural power of totems and finally begin to try to prove the essential power of their own lives with their own images (Zheng 1992, p. 157), which profoundly and vividly encapsulate the spiritual brilliance and sanctity emanating from primitive humans as they navigated their existence and established social connections. This beauty is not the polished or sophisticated beauty of contemporary times, but instead a straightforward, earnest, respectful, and vivid spiritual manifestation.

4.1. Three Expressions of Humanistic Beauty in Totemic Art

First of all, when a collective designates an animal, plant, or natural occurrence as its totem, this action signifies a robust declaration of self-identity. They acknowledge their identity as a distinct group separate from others (other totems). The act of designating the group with a totem symbol signifies a crucial milestone in the emergence of individual and communal self-awareness. Simultaneously, the totem represents the sacred bloodline that unites the group’s members. Plekhanov stated, “Totemism is characterized by the belief in a blood relationship between a specific lineage of individuals and a particular species of animal” (Plekhanov 1962, p. 383). It surpasses biological lineage and establishes robust social affiliations. Totemic art, including totem badges worn on the body, totem symbols painted on the body or objects, and built totem poles, serves as a visual manifestation of this sense of belonging. Through these artistic symbols, tribal members consistently affirm their identity and status within the community, fostering a sense of confidence and worth regarding “who I am” and “where I belong.” This sense of belonging, rooted in shared ideas, constitutes a fundamental social necessity in human nature.

Secondly, totemic images embody sacred regulations and taboos such as the prohibition of hunting or consuming totemic entities, which function as social norms and are perpetuated and communicated through totemic art. Consequently, totemism may be considered the “law” of primitive societies. At the same time, Classical totemism stems from a special relationship to Nature, conditioned by a hunting-and-collecting existence and a particular form of social organization (Worsley 1955, p. 860). Clan members must collectively adhere to the applicable taboo regulations. Totemism underpins the operation and evolution of clan society. Chinese scholar Yi Zhongtian asserted that totemism is fundamentally more social than religious or genealogical; in essence, totemism represents a form of social relations among individuals, expressed through the interaction between humanity and nature, which has been sanctified through religious or magical means (Yi 1992, p. 89). As Eleanor Harrison-Buck and David A. Freide point out in their study, To move shamanism and animism out of their long-standing “savage slot” in anthropology, we consider these comparative terms not as static religious structures, but as ongoing relations with the environment that Indigenous peoples describe as distinct ways of knowing and acquiring knowledge about the world in which they live (Harrison-Buck and Freidel 2021, p. 394). Consequently, totemism possesses a degree of sociality, and the taboos and sanctions linked to the sacred effectively sustain the psychological stability of the clan tribe. Transgressing totemic taboos is perceived as a challenge to the essential order of the group. Consequently, totemic art serves as a visual reminder for members to adhere to norms and preserve group cohesion. It illustrates the endeavors of early humans to establish social order and seek group stability and continuity, marking the inception of organization and morality in human nature.

Finally, about spiritual expression for both individuals and societies. For individuals, totems function not just as symbols of the collective but may also act as personal guardian spirits. Adorning oneself with totem ornaments or inscribing totem patterns on the body is perceived as a means to harness the protective power of the totem deity and establish communication with ancestors or guardian spirits. In group rituals like initiation rites, individuals symbolically experience “death and rebirth” by donning certain totem masks or acquiring the imprint of totem symbols (Frazer 1913, p. 272). Yi Zhongtian posits that in specific significant ritual practices, primitive humans adorning themselves in animal likenesses constitutes a socially meaningful act imbued with sacred significance, serving as a crucial means of self-affirmation for early humans as they transitioned into human society (Yi 1992, p. 92). Spencer and Gillen examined Australian indigenous tribes and, upon studying the initiation ceremonies of primitive societies, stated, “With very few exceptions, all Australian aborigines must pass some kind of initiation before they can learn the secrets of the tribe” (Spencer and Gillen 1968, p. 212). Through these ceremonial acts, primitive individuals underwent a shift in their social identity and attained spiritual elevation. In the ceremonies, shamans or priests donned totem masks and utilized totem objects, perceived as a method for converting into the totem or acquiring the capacity to connect with the totem deity. Totemic art serves as a significant channel for individuals to pursue spiritual power, transcend the mundane, and attain spiritual growth within a primitive framework. Primitive individuals engaged in creative production and ceremonial acts to comprehend and manipulate elements beyond their dominion (nature, life, and death), articulating humanity’s deep spiritual yearning to grasp the sacred and attain harmony with the supernatural.

The aforementioned are the three main aspects of humanistic beauty in totemic art, mostly manifested in the anthropomorphism of creative forms: during the carving and painting of totemic pictures, primitive individuals would instinctively infuse human traits or feelings. For instance, while illustrating animal totems, they may assign anthropomorphic stances or integrate symbols that signify human existence, procreation, and vigor into abstract designs. This artistic expression represents a fundamental inquiry by prehistoric societies to comprehend their own traits and establish an equitable or even unique connection with all elements of nature. Then, we shall examine this in conjunction with particular archaeological findings.

4.2. Human-Faced Fish Pattern Painted Pottery Basin

The Chinese human-faced fish pattern painted pottery basin (Figure 3) is a pottery artifact from the early Neolithic period of the Yangshao culture. It was primarily used as a coffin lid for children’s jar coffins, serving as a specialized burial vessel. The painted pottery basin is red in color, with intermittent black painted bands along the rim. The inner walls feature two symmetrical human-faced fish patterns painted in black. The human faces are circular, with pointed protrusions resembling hair buns on the tops of their heads and fish fin-shaped decorations. On either side of the mouth are stylized fish patterns, with the fish heads overlapping the outer contours of the human mouth, as if the mouth were simultaneously holding two large fish. Additionally, there are two small fish on either side of the human face’s ears, forming a unique human-fish hybrid. Between the two human faces, there are two large fish in a chasing posture. The entire composition is free-flowing and highly dynamic, with simple patterns and a fantastical atmosphere.4

The human face is formed by the fusion of a human and a mermaid. The human head is adorned with peculiar attire, resembling the makeup worn during religious ceremonies, and bears the characteristics of a shaman. Therefore, such paintings are generally interpreted as symbolizing a shaman invoking the spirit of a fish deity to perform a soul-summoning ritual for children who died prematurely. This reflects the mourning and consolation of the ancestors for the early death of young children, attempting to use art to give death a sense of sacred destiny, reflecting the respect and care of the clan society for individual life, and reflecting humanistic beauty. Additionally, some interpret the coexistence of human faces and fish patterns as a mermaid-like fusion, suggesting that the fish has been fully deified and may be worshipped as a totem (Central Academy of Fine Arts 2002, p. 10). Thus, the fish is not merely food but a symbol bearing spiritual power. This abstract process represents a spiritual practice of elevating material objects into spiritual carriers.

4.3. Sorcerer Rock Paintings in the Trois Frères Caves in France

Western archaeological sites have revealed various representations of “human-divine hybrids” and “human–animal hybrids.” Cave paintings were one of the main art forms of primitive humans and are important historical materials for exploring and researching history. In the late Paleolithic era, particularly within the Aurignacian and Magdalenian cultures, artistic artifacts began to exhibit “half-human, half-animal” figures or characters embellished with animalistic masks or other ornamental features. Such imagery is exemplified in the rock art of cave sites, including Marsoulas, Altamira, and Lourdes. The shift from the early Paleolithic period’s focus on animal imagery to “human–animal hybrid” imagery distinctly demonstrates how early humans commenced the exploration and expression of their own humanity. This ongoing recognition and emergence of self-awareness has prompted efforts to articulate personal life experiences artistically, to highlight social engagements, and ultimately to discover the manifestation of the fundamental essence of human existence (Zheng 1992, p. 134). The most renowned instance of “human–animal syncretism” or “human-god syncretism” imagery from the Paleolithic era is the “sorcerer” rock painting located in the Trois Frères cave in France (Figure 4). In the early 1920s, Henri Breuil produced a replica of this painting, illustrating an anthropomorphic being with human legs, bear paws, a horse’s tail, deer antlers, a bison’s beard, and owl eyes, poised in a dance-like stance. This painting is situated at the cave’s apex, and this elevated placement creates the impression that the central figure in the artwork dominates the animals illustrated in the adjacent paintings. Consequently, many anthropologists have referred to this picture as a shaman or a god, with the ability to influence prey reproduction and hunting success (Bataille 1955, p. 120).

The human figures represented in this rock art can be understood as a synthesis of totemic symbols and humans, encapsulating the primitive humans’ assertion of identity and the emergence and advancement of their self-awareness. Bataille observed, “Most surely, the Magdalenians (whom the Aurignacians must have resembled) sensed that, being animals no longer, having become men, they now possessed might, power, and a position of command” (Bataille 1955, p. 121). Furthermore, the amalgamation of totem and human, coupled with the anthropomorphism of the divine, imparted divine attributes of the totem to humanity. Humans were no longer wholly subordinate to nature; their status and self-awareness were markedly enhanced. This surreal image, merging human and animal traits, examines humanity and sacred power, resembling the bravery to advance toward an unknown light in darkness—it epitomizes the most ancient and enduring beauty of humanity.

The humanistic beauty inherent in totemic art is central to its vivid representation of the spiritual awakening and transcendence of primitive humans.

Awakening: Primitive humans defined themselves (as a group) through totems, becoming aware of their existence and uniqueness (self-awareness), as well as their dependence on and belonging to the group (sociality). They projected the characteristics of humanity onto all things in nature (totems) and sought to draw strength and wisdom from them.

Transcendence: Through primitive art and rituals, early humans sought to break through the limitations of individual life, connect with their ancestors and deities, and pursue a sacred order and meaning that transcended everyday experience. This pursuit of meaning, connection, and eternity is the most profound and spiritually enlightening part of human nature.

Therefore, the humanistic beauty in totemic art signifies the evolution of life and humanity as subjects of primitive spiritual reflection, indicating that primitive peoples were not entirely subservient to totems and natural forces. The representation of human images and the formulation of values have experienced significant advancement. This represents the external manifestation of the spiritual realm of primitive humans, imbued with reverence for the origin of life, accountability for the group’s perpetuation, the quest for cosmic harmony, and the yearning for transcendent authority. This spiritual radiance emerging from ignorance and the continual manifestation of sanctity exemplify the resilience of the human spirit, as well as the most fundamental, genuine, and poignant humanistic beauty. It demonstrates that even in the most rudimentary conditions, humans have consistently engaged in inquiry and artistic expression regarding essential questions such as “who we are,” “where we originate,” “how we coexist,” and “how we comprehend the world.” This inquiry constitutes the essence of humanistic beauty.

5. The Artistic Beauty of Totemic Art: The Spiritual Essence Behind Totemic Artistic Style and Anti-Aesthetic Tendencies

Totemic art, as one of humanity’s earliest symbolic systems, serves as both the cultural code of primitive social structures and a tangible manifestation of the spiritual realm of early societies. The essence of totemic art, as a visual embodiment of primitive beliefs, transcends mere formal aesthetics; it serves as a spiritual expression that intertwines spirituality and sacredness. Beneath the ostensibly rugged lines and intense forms reside the primitive peoples’ deep comprehension of the genesis of life, cultural identity, and the very structure of the cosmos. This art form, through stylistic evolution, utilitarian characteristics, and symbolic imagery, alters the primitive people’s comprehension of the universe, their veneration for life, and their communal unity into a tangible sacred beauty.

Totemic art was integral to the totemic practices of early human societies and emerged concurrently with totemism. From the religious standpoint of totemism, totemic art represents the divine embodiment of the primitive religious notion of totemism, wherein sacred power and veneration are unveiled and articulated. Artistic endeavors were essential components of totemic or witchcraft rituals. Artistic imagery fulfilled prehistoric humans’ desire to invoke totemic spirits, simultaneously eliciting the psychological impacts of totemic or witchcraft rituals, thereby bolstering their confidence in practical endeavors (Zheng 1992, p. 46). From this viewpoint, totemic art originated from the beliefs and rituals of totemism, while simultaneously exerting a reciprocal influence on totemism, intensifying the primitive people’s psychological and emotional veneration for the sacred, thereby objectively fostering and reinforcing the perpetuation and evolution of totemism. Furthermore, from the aforementioned humanistic beauty of totems, we have discerned that over time and through social practices, primitive societies developed a heightened awareness of the significance of both the individual and the collective, elevating humans to a status comparable to that of totems and deities. The alteration in the notion of humanity was assimilated by primitive individuals, with its external manifestation most intuitively reflected in the totemic art produced by these societies. Totemic art is an integral component of primitive social existence and a vital aspect of social life. Consequently, depictions of humans, humans alongside animals, and humans in conjunction with deities began to emerge on the rudimentary “canvases” of primitive peoples. The social essence of totems facilitated the evolution and metamorphosis of totemic artistic expressions. The impetus for the emergence and evolution of totemic art lies within the religious and social implications of totemism.

5.1. Style Evolution: From Concrete Imitation to the Spiritual Ascension of Abstract Symbols

Having comprehended the connection between totemic art and totemism, we shall now delve deeper into the issue of style in totemic art. Boas posited that in primitive art, “The patterns, or as we usually say, the style, dominates the formal as well as the representative art” (Boas 1922, p. 84). Denis Dutton has also emphasized the importance of style in primitive art (Dutton 1995, p. 322). Visual art predominantly employs formal aesthetics to convey and affect individuals, while expressive art chiefly depends on content to exert its impact. The essence of expressive art resides in the integration of form and content, a feat unattainable by mere formal beauty. Boas posits that the essence of style is rooted in the expression or reproduction of content. Boas categorizes this expression, or style, into two classifications: realism and symbolism. In art, these are expressed through realistic imagery and simplified patterns. Totemic art, as a significant component of primitive art, can be examined regarding its stylistic attributes from both realistic and symbolic viewpoints. Totemic culture predominantly existed during the Paleolithic era. Paleolithic art typically denotes the plastic arts discovered in Europe from 40,000 to 10,000 BC, primarily manifested as sculptures and rock paintings (Zhu 1988, p. 229). Consequently, painting and sculpture are significant and compelling subjects for the analysis of totemic art. Some scholars still insist that Paleolithic art was aesthetic and believe that the animal images and occasional human images found later in prehistoric caves in France and Spain were essentially aesthetic, and that humans have an innate nature to express themselves through art (Zhu 1988, p. 301). The most emblematic example of Paleolithic art with totemic implications is the rock painting of the “Lascaux shaft scene” located in the Lascaux cave in France (Figure 5).

In the entire cave, this is the only depiction of a human figure. A bison charges at a fallen bird-headed humanoid “weird man” in the image. The bison lowers its head and tries its best to gaze at the “bird man” in front of it despite the spear piercing its body and the large flow of intestines and other internal organs from its abdomen (Ochoa 2018, p. 817). Nonetheless, the bull bows its head and exerts all its strength, fixating intently on the “bird-man” before it. The representation of the wild bull is exceptionally precise and vivid. The thick fur, wide eyes, and upright horns are depicted with such realism that they accurately convey the bull’s physique and the rage it experiences after being injured. This representation stands independently, even when juxtaposed with contemporary realist art. Conversely, the “bird-man” figure has been deliberately stylized or reduced, resembling a bird-headed human or an individual adorned with a bird mask, featuring four fingers on each hand, the body inclined at a 45-degree angle, with fragmented bird-shaped weaponry (potentially spears or javelins) positioned nearby. The “bird-man” depiction is believed to represent a hunter camouflaged as an animal, or potentially a shaman engaging in sorcery. This prehistoric rock painting may no longer be fully comprehended, yet it illustrates the primitive people’s totemism and their fervent, unwavering belief in nature. This rock painting exemplifies the realistic style identified by Boas.

A further exemplar of totemic art that exemplifies this style to its utmost is the Churinga (Figure 2). The Churinga is a sacred object, distinguishable from ordinary wooden and stone items primarily by the totemic symbols and engravings it bears. The Churinga of the Australian Aborigines consist of oval stone fragments and wooden blocks of varying dimensions, adorned with distinctive patterns featuring concentric circles or semicircles, spirals, parallel lines, and dots. These patterns typically possess sacred mythological significance, representing totemic ancestors and specific episodes of their narratives (Zheng 1992, p. 47). Therefore, the symbolic meaning of the decorative patterns on Churinga is evident. The diverse patterns adorning Churinga evoke numerous symbols found in contemporary abstract art. Philosopher Susanne K. Langer posits that art embodies emotions—encompassing the entirety of human feelings—allowing for appreciation, and serves as a transformation of these emotions into visible or auditory manifestations. Use symbols to transform emotions into something that appeals to people’s perceptions, rather than something that appeals to reasoning skills or symptoms (Langer 2006, p. 28). The totemic art form on Churinga resembles this. In contrast to the realistic depiction of totems or deities through animal imagery, it converts the sacred essence and emotions associated with totems into observable symbols, thereby enabling primitive individuals to nurture their faith in and veneration for totems. The patterns and symbols on the Churinga also signify the evolution and diversity of the totemic art style. While this symbolic totemic art, in the Boas sense, continues to convey the sanctity of totems and support the faith, it has increasingly transitioned towards formalization and ornamentation. Therefore, from this angle, it is no accident that the Churinga, with its unique patterns and integration of formal aesthetics and sacredness, is the most genuine and representative example of totemic art (Errington 1994, p. 216).

China’s archaeological remains also exhibit this stylistic evolution. The fish-and-bird-patterned painted pottery jar from the Yangshao Culture of the Neolithic period (Figure 6) is one of the representative examples of this realistic style. The jar is an orange-yellow color. The fish-and-bird patterns are painted on the middle section of the jar, with the heads and tails of the fish and birds intertwined, encircling it once. A water bird stands on the right side, with a long neck and beak, feathers on its head, striped feathers on its body, and wide-open eyes. Its beak holds the tail of a large fish in front of it. The fish is thick and long, covered in large scales, with prominent fin-like structures on either side of its head. It is struggling fiercely, with its head and body arched upward and curved into an arc, appearing helpless and defenseless (See Note 4). The pottery jar’s pattern, composed of minimal strokes and primarily simple lines, is remarkably expressive, vividly illustrating the intense conflict between the fish and the bird, and can be regarded as a masterpiece of artistic creation. This image of a waterbird with a fish possesses both substantial artistic allure and deep totemic significance. The scene is widely regarded as a subtle reflection of the conflicts and struggles between the Bird Clan and the Fish Clan that coexisted in ancient society.

The swirl-patterned pointed-bottom painted pottery bottle from the Majiayao Culture7 of the Neolithic Age (Figure 7) is decorated with black paint, with parallel stripes on the neck and square continuous swirl patterns on the shoulders and abdomen. The pointed-bottom design suggests that it may have been used for hanging water, reflecting the prehistoric people’s combination of practicality and artistry in their artifacts. The most distinctive feature of the swirl-patterned, pointed-bottom jar is its flowing, swirl-patterned decoration, characterized by dense composition and intricate, ever-changing patterns (Central Academy of Fine Arts 2002, p. 10). This decorative pattern serves not only as ornamentation but also as an abstract representation of the ancient peoples’ deep understanding of natural phenomena. The Majiayao people resided in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, observing the swirling eddies created by the swift river currents daily. This natural phenomenon evoked their admiration and reflection. Consequently, it may signify a manifestation of reverence towards the force of the Yellow River’s currents. Confronted with the river’s life-giving yet devastating power, the ancient populace inherently cultivated a sense of veneration. Upon encountering the whirlpools created by the river’s currents, they experienced a profound sense of mystery and awe. From an evolutionary standpoint, swirl patterns have evolved from figurative representations to abstract forms. As shown in Figure 8, in contrast to the realistic fish and human face motifs of the early Yangshao culture, the swirl patterns of the Majiayao culture demonstrate a significant level of geometric abstraction. This process of abstraction signifies the advancement of human cognitive capabilities and embodies the growing intricacy of human thought. The ancient inhabitants of Majiayao conveyed their comprehension of the cosmic order and their desires for life’s perpetuation through these abstract motifs. The rhythm and melody in the patterns signify their understanding of the universe and embody an effort to establish order amidst chaos.

The stylistic evolution of totemic art represents not only an aesthetic transformation but also a process of visualizing and symbolizing spiritual concepts, illustrating the transition from concrete perception to abstract symbolism in primitive thought, thereby reflecting the advancement of primitive spiritual understanding and the elevation of sacred expression. The early realistic style emerged from primitive thought associated with witchcraft laws, focusing on the accurate representation of totems to exert control over their spiritual power through morphological imitation. As totems fully separated from their biological prototypes, totemic art progressively distanced itself from realism, evolving into geometric patterns, where symbolic designs transformed into an encoded system of cosmic order and spiritual principles, and abstraction achieved the elevation of sacredness.

5.2. Utilitarianism and “Anti-Aesthetics”: The Functional Construction of Sacred Systems

In terms of style, both figurative imitation and abstract symbolism in totemic art obscure a primitive inquiry into spirituality and sacred power. Furthermore, regarding aesthetics, they possess a defining characteristic that differentiates totemic art from modern art, “anti-aesthetics.” The essence of totemic art lies not in sensory enjoyment but in its practical role in facilitating religious rituals, fostering social cohesion, and ensuring survival. This utilitarianism is unequivocally the foundation of its sanctity. The suppression of aesthetics by the utilitarianism of totemic art underscores the fundamental nature of art as a means of survival rather than an object of admiration.

It is important to clarify that “anti-aesthetics” in this context does not pertain to the anti-aesthetics associated with modern art, which critiques beauty through a lens of inquiry and defiance. It indicates that primitive totemic art is fundamentally incompatible with modern aesthetics, which focuses on the utilitarian aspects of totemic art. In contemporary aesthetic theories, beauty lacks any utilitarian function. Kant asserts that “The liking that determines a judgment of taste is devoid of all interest” (Kant 1987, p. 45). Totemic art originated from totemism and, as the manifestation of deities and totems, was venerated by all clan members. Totemic art significantly influenced the beliefs and daily existence of primitive societies, serving as an essential component of their lives. In “primitive” societies, the aesthetic motivation of artworks is secondary because artworks are constrained by utilitarian purposes, including information transmission, entertainment, the display of power and wealth, religious symbolism, and magic (Balfour 1893, pp. 31–64; Grosse 1996, p. 234). This combination renders totemic art and aesthetic consciousness a “by-product” of the religious belief in totemism. Currently, the system of life perception in totemic art remains undifferentiated, and the mechanisms of art or aesthetic perception have not attained independent status, nor have they managed to detach from the enigmatic aura of religious perception inherent in totemism (Zheng 1992, p. 58). Consequently, totemic art possesses a pronounced utilitarian and pragmatic essence, which contradicts contemporary aesthetic ideals. The distinct utilitarian purpose significantly shapes the expression of totemic art. To attain “unity” with the totem animal, one may employ decorative techniques including tooth extraction, skin incision, and tattooing. Totem poles were constructed as sacred objects to demonstrate veneration for the clan’s totemic deities; individuals would also don animal disguises for hunting or witchcraft practices. These artistic endeavors frequently exhibit a peculiar, unsettling, and enigmatic quality, lacking the aesthetic sensibility of contemporary tradition (Zhang 2004, pp. 59–60). The “anti-aesthetic” traits of totemic art, specifically its indifference to formal beauty and strict adherence to practical functions, are a profound manifestation of primitive spiritual expression. This utilitarianism represents not a degradation of art but a fundamental metamorphosis of art into a conduit for conveying spiritual power, establishing a belief system wherein humans and deities coexist through ritualistic practices, social cohesion, and survival agreements.

The stylistic progression of totemic art, transitioning from figurative realism to abstract symbols, involves the distillation of spiritual concepts into symbols, while its anti-aesthetic traits underscore the fundamental role of art as a means of survival and belief. Primitive societies created a “spiritual universe” using totems: natural objects were imbued with divine significance, geometric lines represented the cosmos’s order, and formidable shapes elicited a sense of sacred reverence. This beauty transcends the senses and pertains to the soul—it represents the profound exploration of life’s origins and the universe’s enigmas, whose reverberations persist in contemporary art. Renowned philosopher Zhang Shiying stated, “The sacred realm of ‘oneness with all things’ represents the ultimate concern of human existence, the highest value, and the source of beauty” (Zhang 2007, p. 245).

6. Conclusions

Totemic art is a remarkable manifestation of the spiritual cosmos of indigenous cultures. The three dimensions of sublime beauty, humanistic beauty, and artistic talent are interconnected and mutually reinforce one another, collectively forming a profound system of spiritual expression. Totemic art serves as the foundation of spirituality through its sublime beauty, while veneration of supernatural forces imparts sacred authority. This reverence for humanistic beauty fosters the awakening and transcendence of individual and collective consciousness, promoting kinship, the celebration of life, and community connection, while grounding spirituality in vibrant life experiences and emotional needs. This artistic beauty transforms awe, warmth, sacredness, and vitality into a palpable spiritual existence through concrete perception, abstract symbolism, and utilitarian anti-aesthetic attributes.

The amalgamation of these three dimensions has rendered totemic art a medium for the spiritual expression of primitive cultures, a fundamental aesthetic practice for comprehending the chaotic world, engaging with the unseen divine, and guiding restless souls. Rather than representing mere superstition, it exemplifies an early human endeavor to utilize art as a medium for exploring existential meaning, divine authority, and the quest for a spiritual sanctuary. The reverence for natural forces (sublime beauty), the appreciation of interpersonal connections (humanistic beauty), and the aspiration for spiritual transcendence (artistic beauty) inherent in totemic art are timeless themes of human spiritual endeavor that transcend temporal and spatial boundaries, continuing to resonate in modern art and spiritual inquiry. This ancient wisdom continues to inspire in the modern context. When technological rationality severs the interconnections among all entities, totemic art prompts a reconnection with the humility of animism, illustrating humanity’s unwavering quest for spirituality and the sacred.