Religions

14 pages, 1112 KB

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A Kalmyk Pilgrim in the Biography of the Dalai Lama: Baaza Bagshi’s Journey to Tibet as Seen from Both Sides

by Bembya Mitruev

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081085 - 21 Aug 2025

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Alongside historical narratives, there exists, in Old Kalmyk literature, a lesser-known corpus of travel writing that documents pilgrimages to major religious and political centers such as China, Tibet, and Mongolia. One notable and extant example of this genre is the travel account of [...] Read more.

Alongside historical narratives, there exists, in Old Kalmyk literature, a lesser-known corpus of travel writing that documents pilgrimages to major religious and political centers such as China, Tibet, and Mongolia. One notable and extant example of this genre is the travel account of Baaza Menkedjuev, a Gelung from the Maloderbetovskiy Ulus, more widely known as Baaza Bagshi. His first-person narrative was translated into Russian by A. M. Pozdneev in 1897 under the name “Skazanie o khozhdenii v Tibetskuiu stranu malo-dörbötskago Baaza Bagshi” [Narrative of the travel to Tibet by the Maloderbet Baaza Bagshi] and offers valuable ethnographic insights into a Kalmyk pilgrim’s journey to Tibet in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Until recently, scholarship on Baaza Bagshi’s Tibetan sojourn has been confined to his own account, with no corroborating evidence found in Tibetan-language sources. This study addresses that lacuna by examining references to Baaza Bagshi in the Tibetan-language biography (Tib. rnam thar) of the 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso (Tib. thub bstan rgya mtsho, 1876–1933). The significance of these references lies not only in the information provided about the number of audiences with the Dalai Lama Baaza Bagshi received, the dates of his visits, and the content of their meetings, but also in the fact that they demonstrate how the Kalmyks—despite living in the European part of Russia, the furthest from the Mongolian Buddhist world—did not lose their religious ties with Tibet. The corroboration of Baaza Bagshi’s visit in both Kalmyk and Tibetan sources allows for a more integrated understanding of Kalmyk–Tibetan relations and contributes to the study of interregional Buddhist networks. Methods of historical contextualization, historiographical critique, and comparative source analysis were used for this research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tibet-Mongol Buddhism Studies)

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18 pages, 294 KB

Open AccessArticle

“The One Before the One” in Plato, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Damascius: The Journey to the Ineffable One

by Konstantinos Laparidis

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081084 - 21 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The reason I chose this particular theme is because I considered that Plotinus’ One cannot fully satisfy the demand for an ultimate principle. This becomes evident when we study the Areopagite and even more so Damascius, whose notion of the ultimate principle refers [...] Read more.

The reason I chose this particular theme is because I considered that Plotinus’ One cannot fully satisfy the demand for an ultimate principle. This becomes evident when we study the Areopagite and even more so Damascius, whose notion of the ultimate principle refers to a metaphysical source that precedes the Neoplatonic One. The selection of these three philosophers was based on the following rationale: Firstly, Plato is the founder of the concept of the One. Then comes Dionysius, who speaks of the supra-essential One and connects it with God. Finally, I turn to Damascius, who almost explicitly states that there exists an ineffable reality that precedes the One and is the ineffable One. This endeavor unfolds through a reasoning process developed in three escalating stages, as follows: Initially, in Plato, we encounter the “One that is not one”, which corresponds to light. Next, in Dionysius the Areopagite, we encounter the “supra-essential One”, which corresponds to the invisible light (the place where we can only stand, but cannot see). Finally, in Damascius, we encounter the “ineffable, inexpressible One”, which is not even invisible. In Damascius, what makes this “One before the One” unique is not that we do not know it because, by nature, it is, e.g., invisible, but because it does not allow us to know the reason why we do not know it. Through the connection of these three philosophers, I will aim to demonstrate that this “one” possesses a self-referential existence, establishing its superiority in relation to the One of Plotinus. In the final analysis, the article aims to connect the concept of the supreme principle as God, in relation to this highly apophatic One. Therefore, I will develop the reasoning according to which this “One before the One” can exist. Full article

21 pages, 467 KB

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Faith and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Catholic Education: A Theological Virtue Ethics Perspective

by Jeff Clyde Guillermo Corpuz

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081083 - 21 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This study responds to the increasing call for thoughtful theological and ethical engagement with Artificial Intelligence (AI) by examining the role of personal theological reflection using Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) content in Catholic theological education. It investigates how both educators and students might [...] Read more.

This study responds to the increasing call for thoughtful theological and ethical engagement with Artificial Intelligence (AI) by examining the role of personal theological reflection using Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) content in Catholic theological education. It investigates how both educators and students might utilize AI-generated imagery as a pedagogical resource with which to enrich theological insight and foster ethical discernment, particularly through the lens of theological virtue ethics. AI is not a substitute for all human tasks. However, the use of AI holds potential for theology and catechetical religious education. Following Gläser-Zikuda’s model of Self-Reflecting Methods of Learning Research, this study systematically engages in reflective observation to examine how the use of GenAI in theology classrooms has influenced personal theological thinking, pedagogical practices, and ethical considerations. It documents experiences using common generative AI tools such as ChatGPT, Canva, Meta AI, Deep AI, and Gencraft in theology classes. The principles of virtue ethics and Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HCAI) offer a critical framework for ethical, pedagogical, and theological engagement. The findings contribute to the emerging interdisciplinary discourse on AI ethics and theology, and religious pedagogy in the digital age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality in Action: Perspectives on New Evangelization)

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20 pages, 309 KB

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Converso Traits in Spanish Baroque: Revisiting the Everlasting Presence of Teresa of Ávila as Pillar of Hispanidad

by Silvina Schammah Gesser

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081082 - 21 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Some of Spain’s greatest humanists—Juan Luis Vives, Antonio de Nebrija, Juan de Ávila, Luis de León, and Benito Arias Montano—were from a converso background. Recent scholarship suggests that two of the three most influential religious movements in sixteenth-century Spain—Juan de Ávila’s evangelical movement [...] Read more.

Some of Spain’s greatest humanists—Juan Luis Vives, Antonio de Nebrija, Juan de Ávila, Luis de León, and Benito Arias Montano—were from a converso background. Recent scholarship suggests that two of the three most influential religious movements in sixteenth-century Spain—Juan de Ávila’s evangelical movement and Teresa of Ávila’s Barefoot Carmelites—were founded by conversos and presented converso membership, whose winds of religious innovation to tame Christian Orthodoxy and Counter-Reformation Spanish society, through the influence of Italian Humanism and reform, prioritized spiritual practice, social toleration, and religious concord. Indeed, Santa Teresa de Ávila, a major innovator within the Spanish Church, was herself from a converso family with Jewish ancestry. She became a key female theologist who transcended as an identity marker of the Spanish Baroque, conceived as quintessential of the Spanish Golden Age. Coopted in different periods, she “reappeared” in the 1930s as Patron of the Sección Femenina de la Falange y de las JONS, the women’s branch of the new radical right, turning into a role model of femininity for highly conservative religious women. Consecrated as “Santa de la Raza”, she became the undisputable womanized icon of the so-called “Spanish Crusade”, the slogan which General F. Franco implemented, with the approval of the Spanish Catholic Church, to re-cast in a pseudo-theological narrative the rebellion against the Spanish Second Republic in July 1936. This article examines different appropriations of the figure of Teresa de Ávila as a pillar of “Hispanidad”, in the last centuries within the changing sociopolitical contexts and theological debates in which this instrumentalization appeared. By highlighting the plasticity of this converso figure, the article suggests possible lines of research regarding the Jewish origins of some national icons in Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medieval Judaism and Jewish Diaspora: With an Emphasis on Crypto-Judaism)

13 pages, 1164 KB

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Babylonian-Inspired Biblical Features and the Yahwistic Exilic History

by Tallay Ornan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081081 - 20 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The framing of the Hebrew Bible in the Mesopotamian–Babylonian landscape is evident in two of its central themes. First, Abraham, the forefather of the Hebrews, is presented as a native of Ur in south Mesopotamia, whence he left for Harran and then reached [...] Read more.

The framing of the Hebrew Bible in the Mesopotamian–Babylonian landscape is evident in two of its central themes. First, Abraham, the forefather of the Hebrews, is presented as a native of Ur in south Mesopotamia, whence he left for Harran and then reached the Promised Land. Second is the exile of the Judahite elites to Babylonia, and the later return of some of them to Jerusalem to build their Second Temple. As the Bible was written, rewritten, and compiled by Babylonian exiles, primarily authored after the Fall of Jerusalem, its compilation by Judean exiles reveals a certain legitimization for existence in Exile, namely, the first revelation of YHWH outside of the Promised Land. This article examines the impact of the Babylonian surroundings on the Exiles’ approach to the representation of YHWH. It surveys the role of the Levantine goddess ’Ašerah, while proposing that alongside ’Ašerah, there may have been a male god named ’Ašer who, in pre-exilic times, was probably part of the Yahwistic religion and who was subsequently eliminated or degraded by the Judean exilic compilers of the Bible as it has reached us. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Bible and Ancient Mesopotamia)

15 pages, 379 KB

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The Maqāṣid as a Means for a Contemporary, Ethically Based Muslim Thought: A Comparison of the Views of Ṭāhā ʿAbd al-Raḥmān and Ṭaha Jābir al-ʿAlwānī

by Eva Kepplinger

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081080 - 20 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The modern debate on the maqāṣid has become very diverse and includes numerous suggestions on how the maqāṣid are supposed to reform Muslim (legal) thought. For an illustration of this diversity, the approaches of two very different intellectuals are compared with each other. [...] Read more.

The modern debate on the maqāṣid has become very diverse and includes numerous suggestions on how the maqāṣid are supposed to reform Muslim (legal) thought. For an illustration of this diversity, the approaches of two very different intellectuals are compared with each other. One scholar is the philosopher Ṭāhā ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (b. 1944), whose reflections are contrasted with those of the jurist Ṭaha Jābir al-ʿAlwānī (d. 2016). This research shows that they share some similarities in their premises regarding the ability of the maqāṣid to reform Muslim thought; however, differences can be noticed regarding the content of their maqāṣid concepts and how their concepts should be applied in practice. While al-ʿAlwānī presents concrete suggestions for practical applications, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān understands his contributions as a theoretical basis that is supposed to be used by Muslim jurists in order to reestablish Islamic law on an ethical basis. Full article

18 pages, 296 KB

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Conceptualizing Psychedelic Pure Consciousness

by Mark Losoncz

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081079 - 20 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Drawing upon a meticulous delineation of pure consciousness’s fundamental and necessary features—including unstructuredness, maximal simplicity, selflessness, awareness as such, zero-perspective, and the absence of specific phenomenal qualities—this article asserts that a full-fledged experience of pure consciousness is attainable within the psychedelic state. Critically, [...] Read more.

Drawing upon a meticulous delineation of pure consciousness’s fundamental and necessary features—including unstructuredness, maximal simplicity, selflessness, awareness as such, zero-perspective, and the absence of specific phenomenal qualities—this article asserts that a full-fledged experience of pure consciousness is attainable within the psychedelic state. Critically, this psychedelic manifestation is argued to be phenomenologically indistinguishable in its core properties from pure consciousness accessed via meditative practices. Consequently, this finding not only problematizes, but actually directly refutes Metzinger’s thesis, which posits meditation as the sole “best and most natural candidate” for achieving pure consciousness. Moreover, this work champions a soft phenomenological perennialism. This perspective navigates a middle ground between rigid perennialism and radical constructivism, underscoring the identical phenomenological core shared by all pure consciousness experiences, including those induced by psychedelics. This exploration further posits that psychedelic pure consciousness experiences can yield significant epistemic insights into the fundamental nature of consciousness, the self, and reality. Beyond this, a systematic phenomenology of pure consciousness is demonstrated to offer profound contributions to our understanding of certain religious–spiritual concepts such as God. Nonetheless, while acknowledging naturalistic critiques, a significant caveat is issued: extreme caution is warranted regarding religious–spiritual interpretations gleaned from such phenomenologies. Ultimately, the paper underscores the burgeoning importance of a spiritual naturalistic interpretation of pure consciousness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychedelics and Religion)

34 pages, 405 KB

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The Development of the Reformed Church in Hungary

by Sándor Fekete

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081078 - 20 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The Reformed Church in Hungary is a Reformed Protestant church in terms of its confession of faith, in which both adjectives, Reformed and Protestant, are emphasized. From this formulation follows the critique and firm rejection of a form of organization that existed before [...] Read more.

The Reformed Church in Hungary is a Reformed Protestant church in terms of its confession of faith, in which both adjectives, Reformed and Protestant, are emphasized. From this formulation follows the critique and firm rejection of a form of organization that existed before and still exists today: that of the Catholic Church. The foundations of Reformed (in this article, the term “Reformed” is used to designate the ecclesiastical and theological tradition associated with Calvin, Bullinger, Zwingli, and others) church institutions and church organization were formulated by Calvin in the Institutio, from which Reformed church law, through its historical development, formulated the principle of universal priesthood as a fundamental principle, the principle of synodal presbyterate as a constitutional principle of the church, and the principle of a free church in a free state, although the latter establishes the relationship between church and state. In distinguishing between a theologically postulated church and a church embodied in legal organization, canon law may examine the latter, and in particular, the canon law of the Protestant churches indeed sharply distinguishes it from the theological concept of church. Thus, in examining the development of the organization of the so-called visible church and the questions of the structure and functioning of the institution in the present, I will examine the organization and functioning of the Reformed Church in Hungary in the light of the organizational principles and methods that have developed historically, with a view to outlining the conditions for future optimal functioning. In my study, I trace the transformation of the Reformed Church from its beginnings to the change of regime. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecclesiology in Context: Exploring the Historical, Cultural, and Theological Dimensions of the Church)

23 pages, 1094 KB

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The Sinicization of “ojas”, the Formation of “鬼舐/剃頭 Ghost Licking/Shaving Head”, and the Authenticity of the Guanding Sūtra

by Minhui Zheng

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081077 - 20 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The translations of the Sanskrit term “ojas (apahṛ)” in various Chinese versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are as follows: The Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) avoided translating “ojas” independently, rendering “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” [...] Read more.

The translations of the Sanskrit term “ojas (apahṛ)” in various Chinese versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are as follows: The Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) avoided translating “ojas” independently, rendering “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of). These translations are either perplexing or overly vague. Dharmagupta translated “ojas” as “魂魄” (soul/spirit) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), but the term “魂魄” (soul/spirit) is prone to ambiguity. Both Xuanzang and Yijing translated “ojas” as “精氣” (vital essence) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪精氣” (robbing the vital essence), with consistent and precise terminology throughout their translations. Without Sanskrit–Chinese collation or a comparison of different translations, it is impossible to establish a synonymous relationship between “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), “得便” (taking advantage of), “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), and “奪精氣” (robbing the vital energy). Assuming that the Guanding Sūtra is a translated sūtra from abroad, the aforementioned semantic differences can be reasonably explained, precisely reflecting the historical trajectory of its translation from uncertainty to certainty, from imprecision to precision, and from non-literal translation to literal translation. Meanwhile, the theory of it being a foreign-translated sūtra also helps explain the origin of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head). If we assume that the Guanding Sūtra is a native apocryphal text that was translated into Sanskrit and then back into Chinese, there would be significant difficulties in explaining how “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of) could have been unified as “ojaḥ apahṛ” either during the translation into Sanskrit or in the process of transmission. Therefore, the translation trajectory of “ojaḥ (apahṛ)” and the emergence of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) could serve as linguistic empirical evidence supporting the theory that the text is a foreign-translated sūtra. According to the Chu Sanzang Jiji (Collection of Records of the Translation of the Tripiṭaka), this sūtra “circulated widely in the world”; thus, the phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) should have been familiar to the general public. Alopecia areata, a condition characterized by sudden, patchy hair loss, was not understood by ancient people, who attributed it to “evil ghost licking the head” and thus referred to it as “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head). This term emerged during the Sui Dynasty. After Xuanzang’s translation became the prevalent version, replacing the Guanding Sūtra, “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head) gradually fell into obscurity and was replaced by “鬼剃頭” (ghost shaving head) during the Qing Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Languages and Buddhist Texts: Translation, Transmission, and Interpretation Across Traditions)

21 pages, 337 KB

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Materially Dispossessing the Troubled Theologian

by John C. McDowell

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081076 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Linn Tonstad’s paper, ‘(Un)wise Theologians’, identifies a theological approach that puts pressure on its ability to handle its materiality sufficiently in a number of ways. However, following the trajectory of Tonstad’s discovery of “the deformations to which theology is susceptible in the university” [...] Read more.

Linn Tonstad’s paper, ‘(Un)wise Theologians’, identifies a theological approach that puts pressure on its ability to handle its materiality sufficiently in a number of ways. However, following the trajectory of Tonstad’s discovery of “the deformations to which theology is susceptible in the university” and elsewhere, a supplementation is required to specify where its thesis needs more rigorous development. Firstly, the paper’s argument locates what Tonstad describes as “self-securitization and self-assertion” in a form of a subjectivity characterisable as a docility making possessive form of divine givenness, and it draws the papal encyclical Fides et Ratio into Tonstad’s critique of the theology of John Webster to make this case. Secondly, Tonstad’s appeal to the reparative mode of contextualisation necessitates a differentiation to be made between modes of what is commonly called ‘contextual theology’ since there are forms that shelter under this umbrella term that echo the subjectivity of that which Tonstad uncompromisingly critiques. Thirdly, while ‘(Un)wise Theologians’ only lightly indexes a reparative direction properly “chastened” theology, a kenotically interrogative sensibility may prove to be sufficiently capacious for the critical conduct of “theological therapy”. If so, then it can function to constantly trouble the theological in an appropriate manner without flight into a premature dematerialised fixation point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature, Functions and Contexts of Christian Doctrine)

19 pages, 576 KB

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Hearing the Distant Temple Bell Toll: A Discussion of Bell Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry

by Xiaoxiao Xu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081075 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This article explores the literary significance of the bell as an important image in the poetry of Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a renowned modern Chinese Buddhist reformer and poet–monk. While the bell has long-held symbolic meaning in Buddhist ritual and Chinese literary traditions, its [...] Read more.

This article explores the literary significance of the bell as an important image in the poetry of Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a renowned modern Chinese Buddhist reformer and poet–monk. While the bell has long-held symbolic meaning in Buddhist ritual and Chinese literary traditions, its role in poetry has often been overlooked in favor of material culture studies. This article addresses that discrepancy by examining how Taixu inherited and reinterpreted classical bell imagery to articulate his personal emotions and religious philosophy. Following close analysis of more than sixty of his poems, it argues that Taixu used the bell not merely as a traditional image but also as a vehicle for expressing two core Buddhist concepts: mental purification and transcendence of the mundane. The article also highlights his creative pairing of the bell with other classical Chinese images—such as sunsets, moonlight, mountains, and forests—to form complex imagery groups. Taixu’s skillful execution of this technique exemplifies the considerable literary talent and spiritual insight that enabled him to blend Buddhist doctrine with poetic expression to remarkable effect. Overall, his poetic corpus may be considered as both a continuation and a transformation of classical Chinese poetry traditions, affirming his identity as a modern poet–monk who possessed profound esthetic and philosophical vision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arts, Spirituality, and Religion)

20 pages, 303 KB

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“Forever Strange in This World.” Susan Taubes’ Diasporic Thinking

by Libera Pisano

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081074 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This essay explores the philosophical core of Susan Taubes’ thought through her diasporic ontology—a philosophy of becoming that does not derive from statics but precedes and reconfigures them. Instead of treating exile as loss or as a deviation from origin, Taubes roots [...] Read more.

This essay explores the philosophical core of Susan Taubes’ thought through her diasporic ontology—a philosophy of becoming that does not derive from statics but precedes and reconfigures them. Instead of treating exile as loss or as a deviation from origin, Taubes roots her thinking in displacement, challenging fixed identities, theological certainties, and static notions of belonging. Although overshadowed by her husband Jacob and, due to the fragmentation of her work and her tragic death, largely neglected—with the important exception of the work of Elliot R. Wolfson, who in recent years has contributed enormously to her discovery in the field of Jewish philosophy—Taubes’ writings offer a radical rethinking of Jewish thought as a diasporic identity grounded in hermeneutic openness. Through a close reading of her letters and novel Divorcing, this paper reveals how her diasporic thinking—also evident in her critical engagement with Heidegger—forms the basis for rejecting theological dogma, Zionist ideologies, and the reification of meaning, while opening space for a lived understanding of Judaism. Moreover, I show how, by accepting worldliness as brokenness, her post-apocalyptic hopelessness does not collapse into nihilism but instead clears the ground for radical openness, where meaning emerges not from redemption but from the refusal to close the interpretive horizon. More than a thinker to be studied, Taubes enables a change of perspective: through her lens, concepts like Heimat or identity lose their static authority and are re-seen from the standpoint of exile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rabbinic Thought between Philosophy and Literature)

25 pages, 380 KB

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Elements of a Culture of Peace: A Bahá’í Perspective

by Tiffani Betts Razavi

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081073 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The realization of universal peace is a central teaching of the Bahá’í Faith and permeates individual and collective Bahá’í practice. This article explores this teaching through the lens of culture as a constructive social process based on shared beliefs and values and their [...] Read more.

The realization of universal peace is a central teaching of the Bahá’í Faith and permeates individual and collective Bahá’í practice. This article explores this teaching through the lens of culture as a constructive social process based on shared beliefs and values and their expression. It begins by outlining a Bahá’í concept of peace and then turns to the question of how Bahá’í teachings foster a culture of peace. It focuses on three elements central to a Bahá’í approach to a culture of peace, outlined as follows: (i) the beliefs people hold of themselves and the world, (ii) the importance of a sense of moral purpose as the basis of individual and collective commitment, and (iii) a framework for shared agency through individual action and community building, as illustrated by Bahá’í educational activities, participation in social discourses, and community development initiatives. The article explores each of these elements from the perspective of Bahá’í principles and practices, at the individual and collective level, in the light of the academic literature on cultures of peace, paradigm shift, and normative change, and then addresses the contribution of a Bahá’í perspective to understanding cultures of peace. It concludes with a reflection on the mode of operation of the Bahá’í community, the role of individuals, communities, institutions, and emerging cultural patterns, challenges presented by this vision of peacebuilding, and questions for future research on a Bahá’í approach to a culture of peace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Bahá’í Faith: Doctrinal and Historical Explorations—Part 2)

13 pages, 1627 KB

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Representations of Interreligious Dialogue in Italian Newspapers: A Topic-Detection Analysis (2010–2023)

by Marco Guglielmi and Stefano Sbalchiero

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081072 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The study of the relationship between religion and newspapers embodies a well-established research field. However, relatively few studies focus on interfaith dialogue in the press. Against this backdrop, important questions about the manifestations and dynamics of interreligious dialogue in newspapers remain largely unexplored. [...] Read more.

The study of the relationship between religion and newspapers embodies a well-established research field. However, relatively few studies focus on interfaith dialogue in the press. Against this backdrop, important questions about the manifestations and dynamics of interreligious dialogue in newspapers remain largely unexplored. Adopting a quali-quantitative approach and a topic-detection methodology, the research analyzes 1186 articles from four Italian newspapers (Corriere della Sera, Il Giornale, La Stampa, Il Mattino di Padova) mentioning interreligious dialogue between 2010 and 2023. The research seeks to answer the question: how do major Italian newspapers discursively construct and represent the topic of interreligious dialogue in their coverage? The results identify five representations of interreligious dialogue in the Italian press, each interconnected and/or partially overlapping. Specifically, the analysis of the newspapers’ articles reveals: (i) a broad but fragmented and episodic representation of interreligious dialogue, highlighting a lack of systematic or sustained discussion on the topic; (ii) a hegemonic presence of the Catholic Church in the various representations of interreligious dialogue, expressed through the Pope, Church organizations, and leaders; (iii) a widespread portrayal of Islam as a “challenging religion”, associated with the idea of a “clash of civilizations” and issues surrounding the integration of Muslim immigrants; (iv) a general focus on traditional Abrahamic religions in the representation of interreligious dialogue, which tends to exclude other religious minorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Governance of Interreligious Dialogue and Freedom of/from Religion)

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13 pages, 199 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Gnostic Politics of World Loss

by Yi Wu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081071 - 19 Aug 2025

Viewed by 493

Abstract

One of the harder lessons offered by history is that only the first half of the revolution seems worth carrying out. This study examines how, contra Christianity, which spells out the fate of revolution in its entirety, Gnosticism stands as a symbol for [...] Read more.

One of the harder lessons offered by history is that only the first half of the revolution seems worth carrying out. This study examines how, contra Christianity, which spells out the fate of revolution in its entirety, Gnosticism stands as a symbol for revolution arrested and immortalized in its most radical phase. It shows that Gnosticism is a revolution that structurally renounces the prospect of phenomenal victory in exchange for the eternal preservation and constant renewal of its revolutionary energy. I do so by examining how, rejecting worldly victory, the critical spirit of Gnosticism seeks its minimal and sole embodiment in the individual (the individuated, the indivisible, the residue). I argue that, by building the court of radical inwardness as its theater for enacting what I call the “politics of world loss,” Gnosticism invents the noumenal as that impossible space for enacting the quintessentially phenomenal, i.e., the political. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

17 pages, 302 KB

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God, Ethics, and Evolution: An Islamic Rejoinder to Sterba’s Moral Critique

by Elif Nur Balci

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081070 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This paper engages with James Sterba’s arguments from an Islamic theological perspective, particularly drawing on the Mu‘tazilite tradition. It focuses on three central themes: (1) the position of God in the face of horrendous evils, (2) the relationship between divine command theory and [...] Read more.

This paper engages with James Sterba’s arguments from an Islamic theological perspective, particularly drawing on the Mu‘tazilite tradition. It focuses on three central themes: (1) the position of God in the face of horrendous evils, (2) the relationship between divine command theory and moral objectivity, and (3) the compatibility of Darwinian evolution with objective morality. First, I challenge Sterba’s claim that the existence of a wholly good and powerful God is logically incompatible with horrendous evils by proposing a “theistic structuralist” framework inspired by the Mu‘tazilite scholar Qadi Abd al-Jabbar. Second, while largely agreeing with Sterba’s critique of divine command theory, I incorporate a Mu‘tazilite view that grounds moral objectivity in God’s inherently good nature. Third, I support Sterba’s argument—against Sharon Street—that Darwinian evolution does not undermine moral objectivity, but I further argue that a consistent defense of this view ultimately requires the existence of God. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

26 pages, 414 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Utility: The Impact of Religiosity and Calling on AI Adoption in Education

by Mátyás Turós, Ilona Pajtókné Tari, Enikő Szőke-Milinte, Rita Rubovszky, Klára Soltész-Várhelyi, Viktor Zsódi and Zoltán Szűts

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081069 - 19 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The social integration of artificial intelligence (AI) poses fundamental challenges to value-driven domains such as education, where the adoption of new technologies raises not merely technical but also deeply rooted ethical and identity-related questions. While dominant technology acceptance models (e.g., TAM and UTAUT) [...] Read more.

The social integration of artificial intelligence (AI) poses fundamental challenges to value-driven domains such as education, where the adoption of new technologies raises not merely technical but also deeply rooted ethical and identity-related questions. While dominant technology acceptance models (e.g., TAM and UTAUT) primarily focus on cognitive-rational factors (e.g., perceived usefulness), they often overlook the cultural and value-based elements that fundamentally shape adaptation processes. Addressing this research gap, the present study examines how two hitherto under-researched factors—religiosity and teacher’s sense of calling—influence teachers’ attitudes toward AI and, ultimately, its adoption. The research is based on a survey of 680 Catholic secondary school teachers in Hungary. To analyse the data, we employed structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to examine the mechanisms of influence among religiosity, sense of calling, and AI attitudes. The results indicate that neither religiosity nor a sense of calling exerts a significant direct effect on AI adoption, and their indirect effects are also marginal. Although statistically significant relationships were found—stronger religiosity reduces a supportive evaluation of AI, while a higher sense of calling increases AI-related concerns—their practical significance is negligible. The study’s main conclusion is that successful AI integration, building on teachers’ pragmatic attitudes, is achieved not by neglecting value-based factors, but by developing critical AI literacy that treats technology as a responsible amplifier of pedagogical work. This finding suggests that value-based extensions of technology acceptance models should be approached with caution, as the role of these factors may be more limited than theoretical considerations imply. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Communities and Artificial Intelligence)

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18 pages, 326 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Spiritual Pursuit in Lin Yutang’s Literary Works: A Cross-Cultural Interpretation and Empirical Study in the Context of Christian New Evangelization

by Guoying Yang and Guanghui Wu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081068 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 484

Abstract

The spiritual has always been an important component in literary expression and religious experience, particularly in the context of cross-cultural exchange. Although Lin Yutang’s literary creation has been well received, the relationship between his spiritual thoughts and Christian new evangelization is less commonly [...] Read more.

The spiritual has always been an important component in literary expression and religious experience, particularly in the context of cross-cultural exchange. Although Lin Yutang’s literary creation has been well received, the relationship between his spiritual thoughts and Christian new evangelization is less commonly mentioned at present, especially from an empirical point of view. This study addresses this gap, contributing to the practice of contextualization in mission work by providing a cross-cultural perspective on Lin Yutang’s creative works related to spiritual pursuit and their possible implications for Christian mission work. Herein, 45 representative literary texts were examined, employing a mixed methods analysis of spiritual motifs, cultural symbols, and audience reception among a range of different populations. Emphasized in the coding were self-transcendence, cultural integration, religious symbolism, and narrative as a strategy for creating spiritual involvement. This article reveals that Lin’s Christian writings reflect a mediating spiritual journey, illustrated by Christian motifs of self-transcendence and holiness. Through the integration of Eastern and Western spiritualities, his works offer helpful resources for the acculturation of the Gospel in mission activities. Readers from different cultural backgrounds have also claimed that their spiritual identification and openness to Christian messages improved after reading Lin’s stories. In this sense, the mediating effect of literature on spirituality contributes to new forms of proclamation that are more in line with the current times. In summary, this research brings Lin Yutang’s works into prominence as an important cultural bridge that enhances Christian new evangelization theories and practices, providing clues for culturally conscious evangelization in a globalized era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality in Action: Perspectives on New Evangelization)

33 pages, 3138 KB

Open AccessArticle

Commanding the Defilement Master: Materiality and Blended Agency in a Tibetan Buddhist Mdos Ritual

by Amanda N. Brown

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081067 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 741

Abstract

Tibetan Buddhist ritualists devote immense energy to constructing specialized material items employed during practical rites. These material objects, such as gtor ma (ritual offering cakes), glud (dough effigies), and so forth, serve as conduits between the human and non-human, immaterial realm. This article [...] Read more.

Tibetan Buddhist ritualists devote immense energy to constructing specialized material items employed during practical rites. These material objects, such as gtor ma (ritual offering cakes), glud (dough effigies), and so forth, serve as conduits between the human and non-human, immaterial realm. This article examines the material, human, and immaterial non-human agencies in a particular grib mdos (defilement substitute-offering ritual) that invokes the deity Yamāri and summons an entity called the Grib bdag (Defilement Master) to clear away defilements (grib). This ritual demonstrates fluid dynamics between the material and immaterial, as human and non-human agencies seemingly blend. I will argue that although the material and non-human elements constitute key aspects of this rite, ultimately an emphasis on how human agency shapes and constructs the material and non-human dimensions captures the salient dynamics of both the ritual and its related textual production. This approach aims to center human cognition, the historical development of ritual, and hence practice and textual creativity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materiality and Private Rituals in Tibetan and Himalayan Cultures)

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11 pages, 210 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Idol to Icon: Learning to See Through the Body

by Andrew T. J. Kaethler

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1066; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081066 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 493

Abstract

This paper starts from the assumption that the human individual and its concomitant, the human body, are conceivably idols of secularism. There is a certain irony, perhaps an irony shared with all idols, that such idolatry is so close to, and yet so [...] Read more.

This paper starts from the assumption that the human individual and its concomitant, the human body, are conceivably idols of secularism. There is a certain irony, perhaps an irony shared with all idols, that such idolatry is so close to, and yet so far from, true Christian worship. This article explores the notion that idolatry of the individual and the body may be a form of idolatry that involves re-conception rather than replacement. Utilizing an affirmative approach to culture (albeit not uncritical) that is theologically rooted in Trinitarian relationality, or what could be called a relational ontological approach, this paper concludes that embodied difference naturally calls out for a unity of alterity that opens beyond itself and can thereby become a means of transforming idols into icons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catholic Theologies of Culture)

15 pages, 252 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Political Activities of a Catholic Church Leader During the Period of Secularization in Hungary

by Szabolcs Nagy

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081065 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 597

Abstract

In the Kingdom of Hungary, the process of secularization started rather late. After 1867, the country was led by liberal political forces but, despite this, the separation of church and state continued for a long time. Some ecclesiastical dignitaries were members of the [...] Read more.

In the Kingdom of Hungary, the process of secularization started rather late. After 1867, the country was led by liberal political forces but, despite this, the separation of church and state continued for a long time. Some ecclesiastical dignitaries were members of the upper house by virtue of their position, which obviously slowed down the process of secularization. By the 1890s, there were still many legal institutions in which public power was exercised by the churches instead of the state. The most important of these was the area of marriage law. Civil marriage was introduced by the Marriage Act passed in 1894, the adoption of which was preceded by sharp parliamentary debates. This was the culmination of the first wave of discourse on secularization in the country, which ended with the adoption of the law. Károly Hornig was appointed bishop of Veszprém by the pope in 1888 and, as a result of his position, he became a member of the upper house. Assessing Hornig’s parliamentary activities is more difficult. Joining the spirit of Rerum Novarum, he spoke, for example, in favor of the prohibition of industrial workers from working on Sundays. On the other hand, in the debates about secularization, he advocated positions that would have hindered it, although he eventually withdrew several of his proposals due to counterarguments. In my work, with the help of Hornig’s example, I would like to present an important stage of the process of secularization in Hungary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecclesiology in Context: Exploring the Historical, Cultural, and Theological Dimensions of the Church)

26 pages, 649 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mewi and Yovó: Blackness and Whiteness in Benin and Vodun

by Sarah M. Reynolds

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081064 - 18 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1047

Abstract

The article examines how discourses of race and ancestry interact with both everyday life and the Vodun religion in southern Benin. The researcher uses ethnographic methods to illuminate how discourses of race are unfolding within the racially homogenous country of Benin in West [...] Read more.

The article examines how discourses of race and ancestry interact with both everyday life and the Vodun religion in southern Benin. The researcher uses ethnographic methods to illuminate how discourses of race are unfolding within the racially homogenous country of Benin in West Africa. The researcher examines the Fon terms mewi (Black or African) and yovó (White or non-African) to analyze how Beninese work to situate themselves within larger racial and continental categories. The researcher is also reflexive of her experiences as an African-American in Benin to understand the nuances of Black racial identity. The author argues that Beninese are consistently engaged in their own racialization processes of those who fall outside of the mewi category. Moreover, the Vodun divinities themselves are also able to categorize those who are or are not mewi. This work highlights how ideas of ancestry are relevant to both Black racial identity and Vodun. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Race, Religion, and Nationalism in the 21st Century)

16 pages, 1601 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Daoist Ritual Cosmos: A Social Network Analysis of Generals in Song–Ming Liturgies

by Chen-Hung Kao and Yu-Jung Cheng

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081063 - 16 Aug 2025

Viewed by 624

Abstract

This study employs social network analysis to illuminate the intricate relationships within Daoist exorcism rituals from the Southern Song to the Yuan dynasty, as documented in two pivotal compilations: Pearls Left Behind from the Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and [...] Read more.

This study employs social network analysis to illuminate the intricate relationships within Daoist exorcism rituals from the Southern Song to the Yuan dynasty, as documented in two pivotal compilations: Pearls Left Behind from the Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元). While previous scholarship focused on individual rituals or generals using traditional document analysis, this article introduces a novel digital humanities methodology. By treating the Daoist generals summoned in these rituals as network nodes, we map and analyze their co-occurrence patterns, offering a comprehensive understanding of the evolving ritual landscape. Our analysis reveals a significant expansion in the scale of exorcism rituals from Fahai Yizhu to Daofa Huiyuan, indicating a shift from concise manuals to more systematic frameworks with clearer factional organization. Specifically, the Great Demon-Subjugating Ritual of Shangqing Tianpeng (Shangqing Tianpeng Fumu Dafa 上清天蓬伏魔大法) and various Marshal Zhao exorcism rituals exhibit the largest scales, reflecting the widespread popularity of Heavenly Commander Tianpeng (Tianpeng 天蓬) beliefs and Marshal Zhao’s capacity to integrate diverse pantheons, including local deities, plague gods, thunder generals, and “rampant soldiers” (changing 猖兵). Key figures like Yin Jiao (殷郊), Zhao Gongming (趙公明), Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯), Ma Sheng (馬勝), Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫), and Guan Yu (關羽) demonstrate high centrality. Notably, Ma Sheng, Zhao Gongming (趙公明), and Guan Yu (關羽) play increasingly pivotal roles in Daofa Huiyuan, while Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯) and Song Wuji (宋無忌) experience hierarchical reversals, suggesting an augmented importance of local deities after the Southern Song. This pioneering SNA application offers a robust framework for understanding these complex interconnections. Full article

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14 pages, 369 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Moral Responsibility: The Case of the Evil-Natured Tyrants in Confucian Thought

by Yunwoo Song

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081062 - 16 Aug 2025

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Abstract

In general, the justification for the divine punishment in the Christian cosmos hinges on the notion of free will. Despite doctrinal complexities involving sin, grace, and divine sovereignty, individuals are held morally responsible for choosing evil over good. According to an ancient Chinese [...] Read more.

In general, the justification for the divine punishment in the Christian cosmos hinges on the notion of free will. Despite doctrinal complexities involving sin, grace, and divine sovereignty, individuals are held morally responsible for choosing evil over good. According to an ancient Chinese legend, however, the tyrant King Zhou (11th C. BCE) who lost his throne due to a changed mandate from Heaven was born with extreme evil tendencies. But if his evilness was determined before his birth and all his evil deeds are consequences of his natural tendencies, what might justify his punishment? Through an examination of Confucian responses to this question, this essay argues that Confucians did not ground moral responsibility in volitional freedom but rather in the extremity of one’s moral conduct. Their framework reveals a distinctive form of compatibilism—one in which blame is assigned not on the basis of freedom to choose otherwise but on how radically one’s actions deviate from shared ethical expectations. This suggests that the assumption of free will as a necessary condition for moral responsibility may reflect culturally specific intuitions, rather than a universal moral standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

16 pages, 278 KB

Open AccessArticle

Objective Moral Facts Exist in All Possible Universes

by Richard Carrier

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081061 - 16 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The question of whether a God is needed to justify or ground moral facts is mooted by the fact that true moral facts exist in all possible universes that contain rational agents. This can be demonstrated in three stages. First, it is necessarily [...] Read more.

The question of whether a God is needed to justify or ground moral facts is mooted by the fact that true moral facts exist in all possible universes that contain rational agents. This can be demonstrated in three stages. First, it is necessarily the case that true moral facts can only be described as the imperatives that supersede all other imperatives. Second, it is necessarily the case that for any rational agent there will always be true hypothetical imperatives that supersede all other imperatives. And third, if there are true hypothetical imperatives that supersede all other imperatives, they are then, necessarily, the only true moral facts. As this follows for any rational agent in any possible universe, the presence of God is irrelevant to the existence of moral facts. God could be more capable of identifying those true moral facts, but he cannot author or ground them. And though a God could casuistically alter moral imperatives by altering the corresponding physics, he is constrained in what he can make true this way by moral fundamentals that are always necessarily true. God is therefore not necessary for there to be moral facts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

15 pages, 219 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Moral Hope Argument

by Eric Reitan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1060; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081060 - 16 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This essay develops a distinct moral argument for the reasonableness of believing in God (conceived as a perfectly good creator) inspired by the pragmatic argument for “the religious hypothesis” advanced by William James in “The Will to Believe.” It also contextualizes the argument [...] Read more.

This essay develops a distinct moral argument for the reasonableness of believing in God (conceived as a perfectly good creator) inspired by the pragmatic argument for “the religious hypothesis” advanced by William James in “The Will to Believe.” It also contextualizes the argument relative to familiar moral arguments, notably those of C.S. Lewis and Kant. Briefly, the argument developed here holds that when facing more than one coherent picture of reality, each of which could be true based on the arguments and evidence but only one of which fulfills the hope that in a fundamental way reality is on the side of moral goodness (what I call “the ethico-religious hope”), a reasonable person could opt to believe in the hope’s fulfillment and live accordingly. Following James’ approach, however, this argument does not imply that others who do not adopt such a picture are necessarily irrational or less rational. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

21 pages, 1108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conflict and Cooperation Between the Armenian and Byzantine Churches in the Late 9th and 10th Centuries

by Arman Samvel Yeghiazaryan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1059; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081059 - 16 Aug 2025

Viewed by 753

Abstract

The question of the relationship between the Armenian and Byzantine churches has always interested researchers, often becoming a problem of study. Since the chosen problem concerns not only the mentioned churches but was also a fierce problem of the entire Christian world in [...] Read more.

The question of the relationship between the Armenian and Byzantine churches has always interested researchers, often becoming a problem of study. Since the chosen problem concerns not only the mentioned churches but was also a fierce problem of the entire Christian world in the context of the debate between the supporters of Monophysitism and Dyophysitism, we set ourselves the goal of studying the issue in this context within the framework of the end of the 9th century and in the 10th century, when particularly important development took place. One of the main results of the article is that despite the accepted opinion that the Armenian Church has always insisted on its confession, based on political considerations, the Armenian political and religious leaders sometimes expressed readiness for a church union with Byzantium. The main method of this article is the genetic method, with the help of which the origin, sequence of events, and patterns of development of the phenomenon under research are studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interreligious Dialogue and Conflict)

8 pages, 164 KB

Open AccessArticle

Can Ethics Exist Without God? A Thomistic Critique of James Sterba’s Axiomatic Morality

by Joseph Brian Huffling

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081058 - 16 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This essay explores the question: can we have an objective ethics without God? This question is raised by James Sterba, who argues in the affirmative. As an atheistic ethicist, Sterba is motivated to maintain an objective morality that is not based in theism [...] Read more.

This essay explores the question: can we have an objective ethics without God? This question is raised by James Sterba, who argues in the affirmative. As an atheistic ethicist, Sterba is motivated to maintain an objective morality that is not based in theism and that can withstand the problems with Darwinism. Sterba examines what he sees as one of the most popular theistic attempts to ground human morality, viz., divine command theory. In rejecting both divine command theory and theism, Sterba offers what he believes can offer objective morality: a basic moral norm that all people should adhere to. This article examines Sterba’s criticism of divine command theory along with his own efforts at establishing an objective morality in what he considers a universal abstract principle. In the end, this article argues that Sterba’s axiomatic principle is unclear as to its ontological foundation as well as its causal efficacy in attempting to obligate objective human ethics. It will be argued that Sterba is correct about human nature being the locus of morality, but that atheism fails at providing human teleology to account for such morality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

18 pages, 335 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Rise of Religious Nones and Its Impact on Interreligious Dialogue: Examining “Religious Literacy” and “Meditation” as Mediating Mechanisms

by Haeyoung Seong

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081057 - 16 Aug 2025

Viewed by 807

Abstract

As interactions between Eastern and Western religions increase, “interreligious dialogue (IRD)” has become more prevalent. This study investigates the evolving religious landscape of South Korea, shaped by the growing presence of “religious nones” (or simply “nones”), through the framework of IRD. Since the [...] Read more.

As interactions between Eastern and Western religions increase, “interreligious dialogue (IRD)” has become more prevalent. This study investigates the evolving religious landscape of South Korea, shaped by the growing presence of “religious nones” (or simply “nones”), through the framework of IRD. Since the 1960s, IRD in South Korea has been predominantly led by Christian institutions and facilitated by experts, such as theologians and religious studies scholars. However, the rise of the nones is driving a profound shift in the dialogic paradigm. The traditional intellectual approach, which focused on identifying doctrinal similarities, is shifting toward an emphasis on practical dimensions, including personal religious experiences and the concept of salvation. In this shifting context, “religious literacy” and “meditation” are emerging as crucial points of convergence, not only for IRD but also for interactions between the religious and the nones. While the growing presence of the nones may initially lead to confusion and conflict, it has the potential, in the long run, to foster religious coexistence. South Korea serves as a notable case illustrating how IRD can open new pathways in the realm of praxis. Religious literacy enhances understanding and promotes a tolerant attitude toward the broader social relationships that religion cultivates, while meditation provides a shared platform for dialogue and engagement at the societal level. In this regard, Korea presents a particularly compelling case study, offering a critical examination of the feasibility of these possibilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Conflict and Coexistence in Korea)

19 pages, 3965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Spatio-Temporal Heterogeneity and Trends of Global Catholic Development After WWII

by Xiaobiao Lin, Bowei Wu and Yifan Tang

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081056 - 15 Aug 2025

Viewed by 607

Abstract

Understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of religion is crucial for explaining cultural and geopolitical transformations. Based on multi-source religious demographic data, this study analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamics of global Catholicism after WWII using gravity migration and standard deviational ellipse models, revealing spatial heterogeneity and [...] Read more.

Understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of religion is crucial for explaining cultural and geopolitical transformations. Based on multi-source religious demographic data, this study analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamics of global Catholicism after WWII using gravity migration and standard deviational ellipse models, revealing spatial heterogeneity and tracing the migration of its developmental center. Spatial typology techniques are further employed to classify patterns of Catholic growth efficiency. Our findings reveal that: (1) The absolute number of global Catholics has steadily increased, exhibiting a west-heavy, east-light pattern, with particularly notable growth in the Americas and Sub-Saharan Africa. The proportion of Catholics has declined—especially in traditional strongholds such as Europe and the Americas—while rising in emerging missionary regions, notably in Africa. (2) The macro-trend of Catholic development demonstrates a continuous southward shift in its global center of gravity, transitioning from Europe to the Global South—particularly regions like Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The standard deviational ellipse reveals pronounced oscillation, with an increasing rotation angle and a southward tilt, suggesting an accelerating pace of change in the global distribution of Catholicism. (3) Post-WWII, Catholic growth outpaced population in 75.57% of countries, though modestly. Developmental efficiency temporally followed a trajectory of “broad weak positive—drastic polarization—weak equilibrium”, while spatially reflecting pronounced regional heterogeneity shaped by the combined effects of colonial legacies, social demands, political dynamics, and modernity shocks. Overall, our study provides empirical support for understanding the links between religious spatial patterns and social transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Catholicism)

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