The Benefits of Overnight Programming for Individuals with Disabilities and Implications for Other Populations

Abstract

Overnight programming is an effective intervention that builds social satisfaction, well-being and community; however, the mechanisms supporting these outcomes are not well understood. This qualitative study explores concepts that contribute to social benefits of overnight programs and outlines best practices. Using purposive convenience sampling of an agency that conducts overnight programming, eight adults with disabilities (ages 22–56) participated in semi-structured interviews. Researchers utilized thematic analysis to analyze the interviews. Five themes developed: (a) Experience (program activities, connection to friends, and fun), (b) Liminality (being away from everyday life, respite, and transitory spaces), (c) Opportunity (personal growth, and trying new things), (d) Social Facilitation (interactions between participants, like-mindedness and relationship building), and (e) Support (friends, and staff). Results illustrate overnight programming provides opportunities for participants to experience new things and build social connections. The findings of this study are consistent with the ideas of liminality and communitas, supported by sense of community theory. Practitioners should consider incorporating the four elements of sense of community (membership, influence, fulfillment of needs, and strong emotional connections) when designing overnight programming.

1. Introduction

Overnight programs have been shown to improve social satisfaction and social well-being [1,2,3]. Such benefits have been noted in at-risk youth [4], children and adults with disabilities [5,6,7], individuals with hearing impairments [8], those grieving the loss of loved ones [9], individuals with PTSD, and those with substance abuse disorders [10]. Despite previous research exploring social outcomes of overnight programs, little is known about how overnight programs contribute to these outcomes.

For this study, the researchers have defined overnight programs as any program that provides continuous care for at least one day into the next, with recreational activities designed for therapeutic purposes. Researchers further narrowed the focus of the study by focusing on recreational therapy-based overnight programming. According to the American Therapeutic Recreation Association (ATRA), recreational therapy is a systematic process where recreation is used to address individual needs and increase psychological and physical health, as well as boost overall well-being [11]. Recreational therapists work in many different treatment settings like behavioral health, community programming, public schools, Veterans Affairs, skilled nursing facilities, and physical rehabilitation, where they serve populations like those with disabilities, substance use disorders, brain or spinal cord injuries, at-risk youth, and elderly individuals [11,12].

Serving numerous populations with various needs, recreational therapy-based overnight programming varies greatly by focus and type. For example, therapeutic outdoor programs or wilderness therapy involve trained recreational therapists and mental health professionals utilizing counseling methods through guided reflections and challenging activities in the outdoor environment to promote healthy choices, relationships, and self-esteem [4]. Summer camps staffed by professionals like recreational therapists who are trained to support individuals with disabilities utilize traditional camp activities such as fishing, nature activities, archery, hiking, and creative arts to name a few to address therapeutic goals such as healthy leisure participation, social interaction, and independence [5]. Another example are camps that support those living with mental illness. Recreational therapists coupled with mental health professionals offer activities that focus on collaboration, social inclusion, integrations, and social support and foster outcomes such as engagement, mental health learning and recovery [1]. Bereavement camps, staffed by recreational therapists and trained counselors, also hold therapeutic value for their participants. Using therapeutic recreation-based activities that draw on challenge, success, reflection, discovery, and fun, participants note positive impacts on coping, support, and family functioning [9].

Although these programs differ in structure and purpose, they share a common feature in that they take participants out of their homes and everyday routines and place them in a neutral setting for structured programming. This shift into a separate space creates a liminal period, meaning an in-between state in which participants are temporarily separated from their roles, expectations, and patterns of daily life [13]. This liminal state can allow individuals to shed their responsibilities, which allows for greater presence and stronger social connections with those around them, building community [14]. This idea is not only an important aspect of overnight programming, but it is a core component of recreational therapy itself; by using recreation and activities as mechanisms for intervention, recreational therapy occupies an intentionally liminal space in healthcare [15].

Given the consistent social results of overnight programming across the populations recreational therapists serve, it is important to consider what contributes to the benefits these programs provide to their participants. The purpose of this study is to explore the concepts that contribute to these social benefits and to outline best practices for the programming of overnight programs.

1.1. Liminality

Within popular culture, something liminal often refers to an internet phenomenon in which images feel eerily empty, recognizable, or uncanny [16]. This feeling is so powerful and pervasive that it has generated popular modern urban legends, like the backrooms, a series of interconnected empty rooms and hallways where one may become trapped [16]. Liminality, though, is so much more than this modern, digital understanding; it is a state where individuals step away from the importance of their social class, routines, and daily responsibilities [17]. While these unsettling images and scenes may illustrate the power or influence that liminality can have on our emotions, they are only one way liminality affects people.

Liminality, as we understand it today, was initially employed by Arnold van Gennep to describe a state in which people can linger in transitory phases during major life transitions, such as getting married or having a child [18]. van Gennep described the process of entering liminality in three steps: detachment from the fixed, usual structure of life, residing in a state that shares none or few attributes with daily life, and then returning to daily life [13]. Inspired by van Gennep’s work, Victor Turner defined and explored liminality in greater depth throughout his career as an anthropologist [18]. Turner acknowledges that liminality can be the genesis of fears and despairs but believes that liminal space also fosters growth and positive transformation [14].

Several definitions have followed Turner’s work on liminality, as many fields and disciplines seek to understand how it affects them [19]. The researchers’ perspective behind this project aligns with Lisa Tsaliki’s definition, which describes it as freedom from constraints after breaking free from normative structures, social standards, and role fulfillment [20]. Stenner expands on this definition, describing one as experiencing liminality when limitations they once had no longer apply, and when limits that will later be placed or reapplied to them upon returning to normalcy are not yet in place [21]. Definitions of and research into liminality are now present in a wide array of professional fields; sociology, theology, media, and behavioral studies, to name a few [19]. Bjørn Thomassen, a Dutch anthropologist who studies liminality, has even deemed it a ‘master concept’ that is essential for understanding countless aspects of life and the modern world and an essential part of human existence [22].

Everyone experiences liminality, even if only in passing. This is often in places and situations that are considered mundane, sometimes even dreaded. Airports, train stations, and empty parking lots are just some examples of places that impose liminality as they are transitional and temporary for those passing through [18]. It is important not to let passive liminal experiences and spaces underscore or oversimplify the full effect of liminality; it can be so much more than the common experience [18].

1.2. Communitas

One can experience liminality individually or as part of a larger collective of people [18]. Participants in an overnight program find liminality from the space they are residing in for the duration of program participation; that in-betweenness arising from being somewhere new and finding respite from their daily life. The liminality that comes from being in a neutral space can help shed social barriers that exist in daily life, like those of social classes or other social barriers one may face [8]. Stepping away from your daily room, your daily house, your daily interactions, into a new, liminal world creates an environment where people do not have to worry about what life is usually like, they can socialize with the people around them, free of worry.

Anthropologist Victor Turner popularized the term ‘communitas’ when he was describing an observed intense feeling of solidarity and community while analyzing the rituals of the Ndembu of Zambia [23]. Turner described communitas as a temporary process where relationships are not based on pre-conceived notions of class or social status, but by a transformative and profound sense of purpose and community far deeper than friendships or acquaintanceships [13]. When communitas are present, individuals tend to share extraordinary experiences and bond with their peers without considering any usual social divides [24]. Turner argues that communitas is inherently intertwined with liminality, claiming that through liminality, the absence of usual life structure allows the opportunity for the creation of social bonds unlike any other, as people experience equality and separation together [14]. When you combine the liminality and communitas of an overnight program, you create a bubble in which individuals feel more open and welcome, fostering a strong social atmosphere [25]. Turner calls the moment of intersection between communitas and liminality a transient, temporary state of being in an unusual space believing it provides an environment in which people can recognize an innate human connection before returning to normalcy [13]. Communitas is not going unnoticed, as literature for its impact on overnight leisure is growing in camps, rafting trips, bus travel, mountain climbs, and music festivals [26]. Turner continued to observe them in his studies as well, seeing it appear in hippie communities, Christian pilgrimages, and theater performances [23]. Despite scholarly awareness of communitas being observed in different fields and settings, there has been little effort to explore the applicability and usability of the concept [23].

1.3. Sense of Community

Existing scholarship addresses why overnight programs foster a sense of community. The researchers on this project incorporated McMillan and Chavis’s identification of four elements that contribute to a sense of community: membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and a shared emotional connection [27]. Fostering a sense of membership within a program can lead participants to develop a strong connection to a group, higher self-esteem, and greater mood [28]. A secure sense of membership within a group leads to influence, both of the individual on the group and of the group on the individual, creating a cohesive social unit [29]. Integration and fulfillment of needs boils down to accessibility, a tenet of inclusion that allows all individuals to find success and thrive in a structured program [30]. McMillan and Chavis outline a formula for the final element, shared emotional connection, stating that it results from a combination of personal contact and high-quality interaction with others [27]. It is the researchers’ experience that the presence of these four qualities contributes to the creation of communitas among participants in an overnight program by making individuals feel included in a tight-knit, welcoming group of friends.

In an ethnography of a 3-day canoe trip, Erin Sharpe outlined five steps that might establish communitas in an overnight program: establish the mission, select and train staff, set the tone, maximize authority, and guide interpretations. Establishing the mission involves understanding the objective as a program provider, which can mean creating and adhering to a firm company mission statement [26]. Mission statements importantly establish what organizations want to accomplish and how that should guide peoples’ choices [31]. After understanding the mission, step two is to ensure that staff also understand it, which can be important for organizational effectiveness at achieving the desired goal [32]. Step three sets the tone, ensuring that the programmer stays dedicated to the mission and goals in order to lead by example [26]. Sharpe then emphasizes that the program provider should maximize authority by guiding social interaction [26], which arguably conflicts with Turner’s belief that communitas arises from freedom and a lack of structure [14]. This could be because, as Haggar argues, the liberal use of communitas, along with Turner’s vagueness in his writing, has muddied the exact intention behind the original description of the phenomenon, so some integral aspects have been lost in some interpretations over the years [23]. The last step is leader-guided reflections, where facilitators look back on the program with participants, nudging them to consider the power of the social connections that they have formed [26].

1.4. Social Value

The impacts of the lack of a healthy social life, while largely undiscussed in the United States, is undeniable; lacking social connection has been shown to decrease overall health and increase the risk of premature death [33]. Some scholars argue that social disconnection is definitively present in American culture and getting worse with time and technology [34,35]. Social disconnection is prevalent in and negatively affects many of the populations treated by recreational therapists, like geriatrics [36], people with disabilities [37], and those with substance abuse disorders [38].

The intersection of liminality and communitas creates a strong sense of solidarity and equality between individuals sharing space together [14]. The union of these two concepts through overnight programming creates a space that breaks down social barriers, fostering a thriving social experience [25]. The benefits of communitas and liminality in overnight programming have been shown to boost quality of life for participants not only during, but for up to a year after their participation in the program, making the overnight model a powerful and reliable tool for recreational therapists to address critical social needs [2,8,25].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This study used a qualitative semi-structured interview design to examine individuals with disabilities’ reflections on what they gain from overnight programs. Given the limited prior scholarship on the inherent social benefits of overnight programming and the researchers’ connection to an overnight program, the study used a non-probability sample and an exploratory approach to identify notable themes in participants’ experiences in overnight programs.

2.2. Epistemological Stance

This study was positioned with a constructivist paradigm, meaning that knowledge is formed through individuals lived experiences and the meaning they attribute to those experiences [39,40]. From this perspective, participants’ responses are understood as subjective interpretations influenced by social and cultural contexts, consistent with the study’s aim of identifying concepts that support the ingrained social benefits of overnight programs.

2.3. Primary Researcher Positionality

The primary researcher works as an overnight programmer. This positionality informed the study’s interest in the benefits of overnight programs, as well as interview question development and interpretation. Reflexivity was maintained throughout data collection and analysis to ensure that interpretations remained grounded in participant responses and relevant scholarship rather than researcher assumptions, beliefs, and/or biases. Throughout the research process, the researcher maintained reflexive journals and memos as well as engaged in peer debriefing with the research team to identify any blind spots, emotional reactions, and overall thoughts.

2.4. Instrumentation

Data was collected using a researcher-designed semi-structured interview using open-ended questions that were informed by the concepts of communitas and liminality. Interview questions were developed using concrete wording, avoiding hypotheticals, and refrained from yes/no questions. The research team included experts with over 20 years of experience in overnight programs and intellectual/cognitive disability research. The interviewer used neutral follow up prompts and summaries to confirm understanding [41]. Questions were organized into seven sections: (a) demographics, (b) experience, (c) personal feelings, (d) questions about social benefits, (e) questions about long-term benefits, (f) liminality, and (g) communitas. The open-ended questions can be found in Table 1. To minimize social desirability and demand characteristics, the researcher established rapport at the onset of the interview to reduce pressure and any power dynamics. Participants were then reminded that there were no right or wrong answers and that it was okay to disagree or talk about a negative experience related to the overnight programs. Additionally, the researcher used neutral, non-evaluative probes (e.g., can you tell me more about that? What makes you say that?) to minimize influencing the participants’ responses.

Table 1. Semi-Structured Interview Guide.

Section	Questions
Demographics	How old are you?
Experience	How many overnights have you been on?
	How big were the groups you traveled with?
	Where have you traveled to during the overnight programs?
Personal Feelings	What is it about overnights that you enjoy?
	What was it like for you to stay overnight at the program?
	Can you tell me what kinds of overnights you have done?
	Why did you want to do the overnight programs?
	What other overnight trips would you want to do? Why?
	What was your favorite part of the overnight program, and why?
	How did the overnight program help you make new friends or feel closer to others?
Questions About Social Benefits	Tell me about any new friends you made during the overnight program. What made those friendships special?
	What did the overnight program teach you about other people? How did it do that?
	During the overnight program, tell me about a time when someone in the group helped you, or you helped someone else? How did that feel?
Questions About Long-Term Benefits	What did you learn from the overnight programs? How will these things you learned help you in your life at home or at work?
	What are some of the things from the overnight program that you still use or think about now?
	If someone asked how this overnight program changed you, what would you say?
Liminality	Tell me what you enjoy about being away from home when you are on an overnight trip.
	During the overnights, what was it like to be in a new or different place, not like home? How did that feel?
	How did the program help you feel stronger or braver when trying something new or when you face a challenge?
Communitas	What is the best part about traveling with this program on an overnight?
	How do you feel about spending time with others on an overnight?
	Was there a time when you felt really connected to the other people in the program? What made that moment special?
	How do you feel about traveling with a large group, like a team. What makes it feel like a team?
	Tell me about any group traditions or activities that made everyone feel close, like singing songs or sharing stories?
	How did the program leaders help everyone feel included and supported?
	Tell me how you support others or feel supported on over nights?

2.5. Sampling and Recruitment

Upon Institutional Review Board approval [IRB-25-09115-XP], participants were recruited using purposive convenience sampling. Recruitment materials were distributed by a professional contact in an agency that provides overnight programming to individuals with disabilities. Eligibility required participants to have disabilities, have some to no communication difficulties, and have participated in at least one overnight program with the agency. Study participants were excluded if they communicated non-verbally or had significant communication difficulty. Also, participants were excluded from the study if they had only participated in day trips with the agency. Recruitment continued until the researchers began hearing the same sentiments and themes throughout the interviews and no new information presented. Participation was voluntary, and no identifying information was collected to support confidentiality.

2.6. Sample Characteristics

A total of eight participants were interviewed. Ages ranged from 22 to 56 years old. One participant reported having only been on one overnight program, another reported two, and the remaining six reported three or more. There were five males and three females. Study participants’ disabilities were not obtained in an effort to protect confidentiality. Demographic information can be found in Table 2.

Table 2. Participant Demographics.

Name	Age	Number of Overnights	Sex
Participant 1	29	3+	Male
Participant 2	24	2	Male
Participant 3	30	3	Male
Participant 4	56	3+	Male
Participant 5	53	1	Female
Participant 6	42	3+	Female
Participant 7	22	3+	Male
Participant 8	36	3+	Female

2.7. Procedures

The primary researcher’s agency contact sent out the recruitment email to clients who: (a) have disabilities, including but not limited to Down Syndrome, Cerebral Palsy, Autism, and Intellectual Disabilities; (b) have little to no communication difficulties; (c) have participated in at least one of the agency’s overnight programs. Two follow-up emails were sent, one per week. Due to limited participation after the initial recruitment efforts, the agency sent out an additional recruitment email to clients. Once someone had indicated interest, the researcher emailed a consent form to the parent/caregiver to read and sign, and an assent form for the study participants to read and sign. Once the researcher had the consent form and assent form, a semi-structured interview was conducted and recorded using Zoom software (version 6.7.5; Zoom Communications, Inc. CA, USA). The interviews occurred at times that were most convenient for the participants and took place between the months of November and February. There was only one Zoom interview for each participant, with each one lasting between twenty and forty minutes. The primary researcher was the only interviewer, and a parent was present in four of the interviews. At the beginning of each interview, the researcher reviewed the assent form with the participant to ensure understanding. The interviewer began each interview by asking the first questions from the semi-structured interview guide and would change the order of the questions based on the relevance to the conversation. Follow-up questions were asked to gain clarity and details from participants.

2.8. Data Analysis

Responses were analyzed by the primary researcher using Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis [42]. This approach allowed for structured flexibility, where the researcher could move through the six thematic analysis phases (familiarizing, coding, initial themes, develop/review themes, refine/define themes, and write up) iteratively and recursively rather than a strict linear sequence [43]. For this study, the researcher first familiarized himself with the data by re-listening to and transcribing each interview. Once all interviews were complete, he re-read each interview multiple times while memoing preliminary thoughts. The researcher re-read the interviews again, this time, using inductive coding, manually generated semantic codes. After each interview had been coded, the researcher grouped the codes into relevant overall themes. Once themes were pinpointed, they were reviewed for accuracy and then defined. The analysis emphasized the benefits that participants in overnight programs value in their experience, consistent with the study’s exploratory purpose.

To establish trustworthiness and rigor, the researcher maintained a reflexive journal throughout the study to document emotional responses, interpretations, and decisions during data analysis. Reflexive journaling allowed the researcher to question how his background, assumptions, and values shaped coding and themes. Additionally, the researcher created a decision audit trail through memoing as the codes and themes evolved [44]. Crystallization occurred during the process of refining, defining, and naming the themes [45]. Emerging codes and themes were discussed with a member of the research team where assumptions and bias were challenged [46].

2.9. Ethical Considerations

Following Institutional Review Board approval, recruitment and data collection procedures were implemented to minimize risk. Participation was voluntary, no identifying information was collected, and recordings were destroyed after transcription, within two weeks of the interview.

3. Results

3.1. Findings

Upon completion of data analysis, five themes were revealed: (a) Experience, (b) Liminality, (c) Opportunity, (d) Social Facilitation, and (e) Support. Each of these themes is addressed in the following subsections.

3.2. Experience

The first theme revealed that participants value aspects of what it is like to participate in overnight programs and what makes them a valuable experience. Participants touched on three subthemes that contributed to valuable experience: (a) activities, (b) friends, and (c) fun. Of the participants (n = 8), six of them noted an appreciation for activities. Regarding what they enjoy about overnight programs, they stated: “The activities are well-chosen,” “I love doing all the fun activities,” “I liked the theater, the plays, actually,” and “What was special is we got to go to different parks.” For the friends subtheme, six participants noted that overnight programs provided valuable, enjoyable time with friends. Some of their comments were: “[I enjoy] getting together with my friends,” “About these overnight programs, yeah, I enjoy just being with pals, adventuring, and others,” and “[I enjoy] just being with my group of individuals.” Six participants discussed fun as an important part of the overnight experience. In reference to why they do overnight programs, they said: “It’s fun to do them sometimes,” “It was really fun,” “It was so fun,” and “the overnight experience is just really enjoyable.”

3.3. Liminality

The second theme captures the presence of liminality and its benefits for participants in an overnight program. Three subthemes were identified as different aspects of liminality that participants touched on: (a) away from the everyday, (b) respite, and (c) transitory spaces. Six participants discussed being away from everyday life as an important aspect of overnight programs. When referring to things that they enjoy about overnight programs, participants said: “It’s not really like the usual stuff I do, it’s special,” “I just enjoy being out there, away from home,” “[I enjoy] just being away from home, you know, away from work,” and “[The things we do are] not stuff that I would normally get to do.” Four individuals discussed the value that overnight programs provide through respite from their responsibilities or their daily lives. When asked what they like about being away from home on an overnight program, they said: “I gotta get away from my niece… and my grandma, too,” “I don’t have to deal with anything. Like, no people, no other work,” and “I like getting away from my responsibilities. And, like, all the stress of everyday life.” Four individuals also mentioned transitory spaces as one of the best parts of overnight programs, stating: “[I enjoy] being in hotels late at night,” “My favorite part of the overnight programs is spending the night or two in the hotel, or a cabin,” “At whatever cabin or hotel with good friends, that’s what makes you feel at home,” and “Being on the airplane together [helps me feel close to other people].”

3.4. Opportunity

In the third theme, participants expressed their belief that the overnight programs were increasing their opportunities to lead a full, eventful, and social life. There were two subthemes: (a) personal growth, and (b) trying new things. Six participants noted that overnight programs gave them the opportunity for some degree of personal growth. When asked about what they have learned at overnight programs, participants said: “I’ve actually been taught about what good folks I can actually meet,” “I’ve learned money management,” “They literally just helped me be stronger and braver,” “Just concentrating on stuff, you know,” and “Just be patient… we just have to be more focused on ourselves and not others.” All eight participants noted some value in the opportunity overnight programs offer to try new things. Some quotes were: “Not only did I do snowboarding once, but I even tried skiing,” “[I enjoy] getting to experience new things I’ve never tried before,” “[I’m excited for] new experiences,” and “I enjoy just doing new experiences, getting out of my comfort zone, and just believe in myself.”

3.5. Social Facilitation

The fourth theme, Social Facilitation, captures instances in which participants expressed that overnight programs in some way prompted socializing or relationship-building. This is made up of three subthemes: (a) interactions, (b) like-mindedness, and (c) relationships. In the first subtheme, interactions, six participants noted ways in which overnight programs foster interactions with others. When asked what they like about or why they like overnight programs, participants said: “Seeing friends,” “Because it’s like, you’re seeing more different people,” and “You get to enjoy it with yourself and others.” Some of their other quotes related to interactions include: “They help me make new friends by, first of all, introducing yourself,” “I had the room with a staff member, it was great,” and “Yes, they do [help me make friends].”

Three participants emphasized that participating in an overnight program with like-minded individuals helped them foster better relationships. When asked how the programs are helping them make friends, they said: “I’m finding what we have in common, man,” “Finding what we have in common together,” and “We have the same things in common, you know?” One participant reported a different experience, noting that a lack of people like them made it harder to make friends. They said, “I like doing fun things with [the agency], but it’s kind of hard for me to make friends when the people that I’m doing them with aren’t really on my level.” This participant also referenced making friends through like-mindedness, saying, “I made one new friend through [the agency]. We had a lot in common.”

The third subtheme, relationships, captures individuals’ discussions of how overnight programming fosters deeper connections and stronger bonds. All eight participants indicated that overnight programming facilitates relationships with others. When asked about how they feel about spending so much time with others on overnights, they said: “I feel good about it, I really do, you know? I like getting to know people and get connected with them,” and “If I get to know them, it’s easier.” When asked if groups participating in an overnight program start to feel like a team, participants answered: “Yeah, I guess so,” “It felt like a big family to me,” “Yep, absolutely,” “we’re always a team of having each other’s backs,” and “I guess it started to feel like a group of people who know each other.” When asked what they like about overnight programs, some participants reported: “The friends,” “It’s fun to see different people… and knowing their families, and what they do,” and “It’s giving me some adventuring to do and friendships to make.” Several participants noted that time spent on an overnight program helps build relationships: “Oh, you spend time with people, it gets a little bit easier [to get to know them]” and “It takes me a day or two to get to know them, but after a while, I know them very well, you know? And I’m like, okay, cool, now we’re good, we’re friends now.” One participant’s mom, who was present, said, “When he goes some place for two or three days, he knows about these people when he gets back. They have time to get to know whether they have something in common and if they wanna spend more time together.”

3.6. Support

The final theme, Support, captures participants’ discussions of the importance of feeling supported or of providing support. There are two subthemes: (a) friends, and (b) staff. In the friends subtheme, seven participants discuss support provided to or from friends. When asked about times that they helped someone else or were helped, they responded: “Somebody in the group tried to make me feel better by saying it is gonna be okay,” “We’ll help each other with each other’s luggage,” “One individual, when we were at a rest, the dinners we had, I helped them out [by giving them a fork or a spoon],” “Sometimes, I help the group take stuff out of the car, and if they need to help with a wheelchair or something,” and “Well, I do support them in return, but their support to me… they’re just really, really helpful. They know I don’t really mean to slip up, because I do sometimes, because I’m not perfect.” The last quote is particularly interesting because the individual who mentioned feeling supported around ‘slip-ups’ is not known to have behavior issues or make many mistakes, so that support seems constant. The second subtheme captures instances when participants noted the importance of staff support on trips. All eight participants discussed staff support: “[Staff support us] by helping others know who they are and maybe sometimes playing a game to help others know what they like and such,” “[Staff] gave us ponchos to put over our coats because it was raining when we got there,” “I appreciate all the support from the counselors, and the kindness and everything,” “The leaders are very nice,” “[Staff] help me out when I need to be helped out,” and “One time, [staff] took me to Whole Foods to get dinner while everyone else got pizza, that was really kind of her. They wanted to make sure I got food.”

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the concepts that contribute to the social benefits of overnight programs and to outline suggestions on best practices for programming through qualitative analysis of program participants’ experiences. The researchers conducted a literature review to understand prior research on the benefits of overnight programs and connected those findings to theoretical concepts they believe may contribute to the benefits of increased social capital. The interview guide was designed to explore the intersection of concepts like liminality and communitas with the documented, social results of overnight programs.

Positioned within a constructivist paradigm, this study approached the participants’ experiences of overnight programs as situated accounts through which individuals describe program outcomes. The analysis emphasized meaning-making, recognizing that participants shared reflected subjective interpretations that are shaped by social and cultural contexts rather than a single objective reality. Therefore, the researchers used an inductive, interpretive approach to coding and theme development which allowed patterns and concepts to emerge from participant responses. The findings were co-constructed through the interaction of participants and the researchers, as the researchers actively interpreted the participants’ responses based on their backgrounds. The primary researcher used reflexive practices such as journaling and memoing to examine and acknowledge how their own positionality influenced their interpretation data and to ensure trustworthiness of the interpretations. As a result, the findings are presented as situated themes that highlight how participants understood the social benefits of an overnight program. While not universally generalizable, the findings provide contextual insights that can inform best practices for program design and delivery.

4.1. Liminality

Liminality is naturally present in overnight programs, as they allow participants to step away from their homes and out of their day-to-day lives for extended periods. While it may be an inherent aspect of these programs, that should not diminish the impact that liminality has on those participants. The findings in this study are consistent with the belief that liminality has a positive impact, especially for those who may not experience it very often, such as people with disabilities. Participants discussed the value of experiencing new things, stepping away from their everyday lives, and getting respite from family and daily responsibilities. The time spent away from these things helped them gain the courage to try new activities and work on personal goals, such as improving concentration and social functioning. Several participants also directly addressed liminality through transitory spaces, drawing connections between places like airports, bus rides, and hotels or cabins, noting that these places make it particularly easy or enjoyable to spend time with friends. This dialogue on liminality is consistent with Devine et al.’s belief [8] that liminality helps shed social barriers that otherwise restrict socialization, creating a bubble where individuals can thrive socially as their usual roles or responsibilities are shed, creating opportunity for communitas [25]. Given how consistently participants’ accounts referenced the program’s liminal features, the results support the interpretation that liminality may function as a key contextual factor that helps facilitate social benefits in overnight programs.

4.2. Communitas

An important aspect of communitas is the absence of social markers that signify class or caste [13]. As stated by Sharpe [26], communitas have been identified and explored in many different leisure services and have been optimized to provide more fulfilling leisure experiences, like in sports spectatorship, where teams intentionally foster communitas in their stadiums and arenas to promote fan cohesion and increase repeat attendance [47]. While communitas may be fostered for many in an environment such as a sporting event, some groups, such as individuals with disabilities, may be left out of that equation. While sporting hosts seek to create communitas, individuals with disabilities face barriers to inclusion in that process, often being removed from the unified crowd and forced to sit separately in secluded accessible areas [48]. Given the clinical importance of social connections, overnight programs geared towards individuals with disabilities may help to improve the quality of life for populations who experience barriers to inclusion in communitas elsewhere [33].

The opportunity for social connections from overnight programs is supported by the findings in this study, as participants discussed the chance for deep, valuable social connections they do not get elsewhere. Participants noted that the group on an overnight program felt like a team, that it was easier to make friends on overnights, and the importance of staff support in making them feel appreciated and included. Participants often emphasized experiencing communitas, suggesting it may help explain the social benefits associated with overnight programs, which is consistent with previous studies on recreational therapy-based overnight programming [1,3,5,9]. These themes point to a particular strength of overnight programs such as fostering stronger social bonds, with an emphasis on the role staff play in ensuring that occurs.

4.3. Points of Alignment

Taking a more holistic view of the five identified themes: experience, liminality, opportunity, social facilitation, and support, it is evident that the themes were interconnected and shaped by one another. Participant’s descriptions of experience (e.g., activities, friendships, and fun) were frequently linked to liminality through participation in activities and routines that differed from their everyday life, creating an “in-between” context. Similarly, opportunity was often described as contingent on this liminal shift as participants tried new activities and unfamiliar roles. Personal growth was experienced because they were temporarily removed from typical environments and expectations. Liminality appeared to function as a condition that enabled meaningful opportunities.

Additionally, opportunity and liminality were closely connected to social facilitation. Participants highlighted the unique chance to spend time with others who shared similar interests which supported relationship-building. Finally, support was commonly discussed as emerging within the liminal or transitional moments (e.g., navigating travel, managing luggage, or receiving assistance in restaurants) where situational needs created opportunities for personal or practical support. Staff contributions often bridged support and social facilitation as participants’ examples when staff were helpful were tied to enabling interaction, inclusion, and relationship development through the overnight programs.

The themes and sentiments that developed from the interviews in this study are also consistent with the four elements of McMillan and Chavis’s theory of sense of community: membership, influence, fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connection [27]. Participants discussed feeling like a team and growing closer together on overnights indicating that membership is an important part of the overnight experience, and they mentioned this is fostered through facilitated interactions and group traditions, like getting dessert together after a day out. Influence and fulfillment of needs both arose from the support theme, with participants taking pride in the influence they exert as they support their peers and discussed how staff support was important in fulfilling their needs, which made them feel valued. It is clear that a shared emotional connection was important, as all participants spoke about the value of friends and what makes them important during overnights. Several participants mentioned that staff helping with introductions and icebreakers helped to create these social connections. These findings may reveal that the theory of sense of community is a good foundation for practitioners to use for planning and implementing overnight programs to maximize their social benefits.

4.4. Implications for Practice

Recreational therapists, and other professionals, who provide overnight programming may benefit from using this study to guide program structure to maximize their social benefits. The researchers recommend using McMillan and Chavis’s theory of sense of community [27] to guide program planning, as the qualitative interviews revealed themes consistent with the theory’s four elements of membership, influence, fulfillment of needs, and strong emotional connection. The researchers believe that if a program is built around intentionally ensuring the fulfillment of these elements, their social benefits may be maximized.

Practitioners who work with individuals who could benefit from community, particularly those with disabilities, may also find value in this research. This study reveals that overnight programs are an extremely effective tool for boosting community, and practitioners whose clients have social or community-based goals may benefit from such programming. Any practitioner whose clients have social or community-based needs should explore their options for implementing an overnight program into their practice.

4.5. Limitations

The largest limitation of this study was the small sample size of participants, which limits the ability to generalize the study’s findings. The researchers were reliant on email for recruitment, and it is possible that the agency’s culture of using email to relay all information led to our recruitment messages getting lost or ignored. In addition, looking at a program that serves those with disabilities, the agency where study participants were recruited serves many clients with lower communication and cognitive levels, and those individuals were not included due to the study’s inclusion criteria. It may be difficult to quantify or determine outcomes for those with lower levels of communication. Although the small sample size limits the extent to which these findings can be generalized, participants’ accounts reflected recurring sentiments that were broadly consistent with prior research on recreational therapy-based camps for individuals with disabilities [5,6,8].

Another limitation pertains to the constructivist paradigm used in this study. The findings focus on one overnight program. The results may not be generalizable to other overnight programs which may have different programmatic components or serve different populations. The results of this study may also have limited transferability, as we did not compare differently structured overnight programs nor did we distinguish between different lengths of the program. While there are many different kinds of overnight programs (e.g., camps, adventure) in addition to the accessible travel programming of the agency used in this study, the interview guides were designed to ask questions relevant to the participation in overnight programming in general, so valuable insights could still be gathered and potentially applied to other specific overnight programs.

While all researchers bring bias into their work, it is important to acknowledge the potential subjectivity and bias of the researchers as a limitation. Given that the researchers are active co-creators of meaning, their backgrounds, values, and interpretations of the data help shape the findings. In an effort to manage subjectivity and bias, the researchers engaged in rigorous reflexive journaling and memoing throughout the research process, as well as thoroughly and regularly reviewing themes and subthemes during the coding process to ensure accuracy and precision.

4.6. Future Research

There is ample room for valuable future research on this topic. One route is to examine McMillan and Chavis’s theory more closely, looking at how each of the four elements contributes to building communitas. Research could also explore how overnight programs successfully foster a sense of membership, strong emotional connections, and influence. Looking into these elements more closely could provide a roadmap to more effectively plan overnight programs that foster a sense of community. This could be done via a larger study that looks at different overnight programs to determine best practices to optimize the benefits of community (e.g., overnight therapeutic camping).

The constructivist paradigm used in this study may also guide future research by using in-depth interviews, focus groups, or constructivist grounded theory to uncover contextually grounded explanations of the perceived benefits. Framing research questions around how diverse participants construct and create meaning of overnight programs across varied social, cultural, and program contexts may add value to the existing literature. This approach could be designed to draw out multiple perspectives (e.g., first time versus returning participants, different program models, staff/facilitators, and family members) and to examine how meaning shifts over time and settings. Current literature indicates that the benefits outlined in this study are consistent across populations, so there is considerable room to examine the results of overnight programs for the different populations served by recreational therapists, as well as whether or not the core reasons for an increase in community among them may differ from those of individuals with disabilities. This exists for program type as well; there are many different kinds of overnight programs (camps, adventure), and literature indicates that these results are likely consistent across them as well. Researching other programs may garner more specific understanding of what makes overnight programs so strong at fostering community and whether there are any differences between the kinds of programs.

This study focused on individual experiences of the study participants and did not explore outside connections that may contribute to each individual’s experience. Future studies could explore participant experiences outside of camp and compare those experiences to outcomes for individual camp experiences. These comparisons may also help contribute to a better understanding of how specific disability or diagnoses, economic background, ongoing support/interventions, and other individual variables may impact an individual’s camp experience. In addition, it may be helpful to explore how inclusive therapeutic overnight program outcomes may differ when compared to specialized or disability specific programming.

Future research may also explore the development of a reliable and valid assessment that could assist programs in measuring and evaluating the impact of overnight programs across program types and populations served. Being able to adequately measure the impact of overnight programs can support a case for investing future funding into developing and maintaining overnight programs serving a wide variety of people with disabilities. Additional research may also explore more details of programmatic elements and program length to determine what components impact overall program outcomes.

5. Conclusions

The literature on overnight programming consistently indicates that an increase in community is the primary benefit of this model of programming. Despite this, there has been very little research into the overnight model and what specifically about it is leading to these benefits. The results of this study are consistent with Turner’s ideas of liminality and communitas [14], supported by McMillan and Chavis’s (1986) sense of community theory [27]. Throughout each interview, aspects of these concepts were mentioned by the study participants. For example, liminality was addressed regularly through talks of respite, communitas through descriptions of supporting one another, and the sense of community theory through a sense of membership via feeling like a team. Programmers who plan overnight programs should strive to ensure that communitas is achieved during the program, and the findings of this study indicate that fulfilling the four elements of sense of community (membership, influence, fulfillment of needs, and strong emotional connections) is an effective way to do that.