Multi-Temporal Assessment of Bimodal Monsoon Flood Dynamics and Agricultural Exposure Using Integrated Sentinel-1 SAR and Sentinel-2 Optical Data in Punjab, Pakistan

Floods in monsoon-dominated river basins exhibit high spatio-temporal variability, necessitating high-resolution, multi-sensor approaches for reliable monitoring and impact assessment. In flood-prone agricultural regions, continuous monitoring using optical remote sensing is frequently hindered by dense monsoon cloud cover. This study establishes a comprehensive multi-sensor framework within the Google Earth Engine (GEE) to examine the spatio-temporal dynamics and land surface impacts of the 2025 monsoon floods in Punjab, Pakistan. Flood inundation mapping was executed using a 12-day Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) time series via a dual-threshold change detection methodology. Concurrently, Sentinel-2 imagery facilitated the derivation of land use/land cover (LULC) changes and vegetation dynamics using a Random Forest classifier, achieving overall accuracy of 93% (pre-flood), 91% (during flood), and 94% (post-flood). These accuracy levels were consistent across all three phases despite spectral confusion between water, saturated soil, and vegetation during peak inundation, indicating consistent classification performance under monsoon conditions. The analysis revealed a distinct bimodal flooding regime, characterized by an early monsoon peak in July–August and a more severe late monsoon peak in August-September. The cumulative maximum flood extent reached 9495.33 km², with peak single-date inundation reaching 5449 km². Mapped cropland declined by 6.7% (8181 km²) during peak flooding, with 3.9% (4796 km²) remaining non-cropland by the end of the observation period; 5892 km² of pre-flood cropland was identified as inundated through spatial intersection. In addition, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) declined by 28.6%, from 0.28 to 0.20, indicating a substantial reduction in vegetation greenness. Spatial consistency was checked with the United Nations Satellite Centre (UNOSAT) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), independently collected data showing moderate spatial agreement. The proposed framework is highly scalable for continuous flood monitoring, offering critical insights for disaster management and climate adaptation planning in monsoon regions plagued by data scarcity and persistent cloudiness. The approach is particularly relevant for near-real-time operational monitoring, given its reliance on freely available Sentinel data and cloud-based processing that requires no specialized ground infrastructure.