Search Results (1,871)

Understanding land-use and land-cover (LULC) dynamics within protected areas (PAs) is fundamental for assessing conservation effectiveness and ecosystem resilience under increasing anthropogenic and climatic pressures. This study examines the spatio-temporal evolution of LULC across Bavaria’s protected areas between 2000 and 2023 by integrating categorical land-cover data, satellite-derived vegetation indices, and environmental drivers. Annual LULC changes were first quantified using MODIS MCD12Q1 land-cover classifications to evaluate class persistence, transitions, and area trajectories and were subsequently interpreted alongside 16-day MODIS NDVI and SAVI composites to assess associated vegetation greening and browning trends. Ecological stability was characterized by using class-level persistence indicators, coefficients of variation (CVs), and linear trend slopes. The results reveal a marked greening signal after 2010, coinciding with pronounced land-cover transitions, including a decline in evergreen needleleaf forests (−480.6 km²; −32.2%) and substantial expansion of deciduous broadleaf forests (+390.8 km²; +106.1%) and grasslands (+275.8 km²; +28.4%), while wetlands experienced a severe contraction (−203.4 km²; −73.7%), indicating heightened hydrological sensitivity within protected ecosystems. Correlation analysis further indicates that anthropogenic pressure, quantified using the human footprint index, remains a dominant driver of change in croplands and urban areas, even within legally protected boundaries. Overall, this study demonstrates that vegetation trends, land-cover transitions, climatic exposure, and human pressure jointly shape ecological stability in protected areas, highlighting the value of an integrated indicator-based framework. Full article

Mountain ecosystems are susceptible to climate change, and alpine treeline ecotones (ATEs) represent one of the significant responsive indicators of climate-driven environmental change. This study examines long-term spatiotemporal dynamics of the ATE across the Eastern Slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains (ESCR) from 1984 to 2023, with the objective of assessing whether regional climate warming has influenced ATE extent and elevation across different aspects and watersheds. Multi-decadal Landsat imagery, ERA5-Land temperature data, and topographic variables were integrated within a Google Earth Engine (GEE) framework to map ATEs using the Alpine Treeline Ecotone Index (ATEI), a probabilistic approach designed to capture transitional vegetation zones. Temporal trends were evaluated using non-parametric statistics, correlation analyses, and watershed- and aspect-based comparisons. Results indicate that the total alpine treeline ecotone (ATE) area in the ESCR was approximately 13.3% larger in 2023 than in 1984. However, the temporal evolution of ATE extent and elevation was non-monotonic, and linear trend analyses did not detect statistically significant increasing or decreasing trends over the full study period. ATE elevation and expansion exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with greater changes occurring on north- and northwest-facing slopes and within selected watersheds. In contrast, summer (July–September) temperatures increased significantly (+2.84 °C), exceeding global land-only warming rates, and vegetation greenness (NDVI) showed a strong, statistically significant positive relationship with temperature. These findings show that while climate warming has clearly increased vegetation productivity, elevational ATE dynamics remain spatially heterogeneous and temporally non-synchronous with summer temperature trends. Full article

Urban expansion presents significant challenges and opportunities for ecological conservation in developing countries, particularly in regions such as the Table Bay Nature Reserve in Cape Town, South Africa, where urban development interfaces with sensitive ecosystems. This article examines the complex dynamics between urban growth and ecological implications in this unique landscape, employing multi-temporal remote sensing techniques to analyze changes over time. By investigating the historical trajectory of urbanization in Table Bay, alongside its impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, we aim to underscore the urgent need for sustainable urban planning and conservation strategies. To analyze land use/land cover (LULC) dynamics over a 24-year period, this study leveraged a time series of satellite imagery processed within the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. Data can be accessed using their respective collection IDs within the GEE platform. The use of remote sensing tools aligns with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15, which focuses on the protection, restoration, and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. Urban encroachment analysis indicates that approximately 0.324 km² of built-up area expanded directly within the reserve boundary, highlighting a measurable degree of infringement into protected zones. The dominance of built-up and bare land classes highlights the early encroachment of urban infrastructure and anthropogenic disturbance, setting the stage for subsequent land cover transformations observed in later years (2012 and 2024). These findings demonstrate a persistent trend of urban encroachment and ecological alteration within the Table Bay Nature Reserve. With the increase in global population levels, urban expansion into protected conservation areas has become a critical environmental concern, threatening biodiversity globally. This challenge is particularly acute in developing countries as seen in regions like the Table Bay Nature Reserve in Cape Town, South Africa, where urban development is interfaced with sensitive ecosystems. Full article

This study aimed to analyze changes in vegetation, built-up areas, and population growth in Lahore city from 1990 to 2023. The data was acquired from Google Earth Engine, and the spectral bands were retrieved from Landsat 5 and Landsat 8. The decadal analysis of the landscape was conducted from 1993 to 2001, 2001 to 2012, and from 2013 to 2023. Further analysis was conducted in ArcGIS version 10.3 to evaluate the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and the Normalized Difference Built-up Index to assess vegetation and built-up areas, respectively. To analyze the urban population of Lahore, data were obtained from the Global Human Settlement Layer for 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020. Results revealed that the total vegetated area of Lahore city decreased from 1453.0 km² in 1993–2001 to 788.2 km² in 2013–2023. Moreover, the urban built-up area expanded from 319.6 km² in 1993–2001 to 966.8 km² in 2013–2023. Sub-district-level analysis indicated that Model Town and Raiwind areas of Lahore depicted better vegetation recovery in this decade. The population of Lahore has been increasing steadily, with the 2010s being a particularly rapid period of growth. The projections for 2030 also depict a continuous growth pattern. This study was further developed by integrating multi-decadal averaging coupled with selected-year analysis to distinguish gradual land transformation from relatively accelerated phases of urban expansion of Lahore. Also, by combining NDVI and NDBI values on both Lahore and its tehsil level, the research provides a collective sub-district- and district-level perspective into the spatial heterogeneity of peri-urban transformations. The findings of the study explain how major infrastructural projects shape the urban growth patterns of cities like Lahore and cause a decline in the green areas of fast-growing cities in South Asia. This study further highlights the consequences of unplanned urban expansion in regions where high population growth has compromised green infrastructure and threatened ecological balance. In addition, it supports several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) by providing spatial evidence of urban expansion of the city and losses of its green spaces. The findings offer empirical insights to support climate-resilient developments. The study also demonstrates the necessity of integrating green infrastructure and providing robust strategies for forthcoming urban planning projects and policy development regarding urban expansion. Full article

Recent large-scale renewable energy projects, such as the Luzia Solar and Chafariz Wind energy plants in Santa Luzia, Paraíba, Brazil, raised environmental concerns due to their impact on vegetation cover and landscape structure. This study used geospatial technologies to evaluate changes in tree cover and landscape configuration resulting from the installation of these projects. Sentinel-2 imagery processed in Google Earth Engine generated NDVI, SAVI, NDWIveg, and LAI vegetation index data for the dry and rainy seasons of the six years between 2019 and 2024. With these vegetation index values and considering MapBiomas (version 8.0) and FRAGSTATS software (version 4.2), we analyzed the changes in land use and vegetation cover of Santa Luzia municipality during this six-year period. Land use and vegetation cover remained stable from 2019 to 2020 (before the installation of the energy plants), characterized by an NDVI value of 0.60, while tree cover decreased in the following four years, during or after the installation of the energy plants, as indicated by the consistent decreases in NDVI and NDWIveg values. Grassland class areas declined from 41.80% (18,434.59 ha) in 2019, to 34.36% (15,151.22 ha) in 2023, while non-vegetated areas increased by 148%. Landscape metrics showed increased fragmentation, with patch density rising from 3.31 to 3.88 patches/100 ha and core area decreasing from 3045.60 ha to 1395.01 ha. These data demonstrated measurable ecological impacts linked to the infra-structure built to run the two solar and wind energy plants in the semi-arid region of Santa Luzia, Paraíba, Brazil. Full article

Vegetation Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is vital for assessing carbon cycles, particularly in arid regions where dynamics rely on water availability. This study investigates the mechanisms by which ecological water conveyance impacts NPP in the Aiding Lake Basin. Integrating Remote Sensing Hydrological Station technology with the Google Earth Engine platform and the CASA model, we analyzed the spatiotemporal feedback between water conveyance and NPP from 2016 to 2023. Results showed increasing runoff and significant variation in conveyance volumes, with the Baiyang River exhibiting the highest efficiency. Mean annual NPP displayed a significant declining trend, characterized by higher values upstream than downstream and in the west compared to the east. Ecological water conveyance positively enhanced regional vegetation productivity, demonstrating a significant positive correlation with NPP that was stronger at the annual scale. These findings provide a new framework for evaluating the benefits of ecological water conveyance, offering a theoretical basis for ecological conservation in Northwest China. Full article

As Guangdong is a pivotal province in China’s national forest city initiative, examining the spatiotemporal evolution and key drivers of eco-environmental quality (EEQ) in Guangdong is essential for advancing regional sustainable development. To address the complexity of EEQ assessments in areas that are characterized by dense hydrological networks, extensive vegetation cover, and rapid urban expansion, the Google Earth Engine platform was utilized in this study, and remote sensing indices with heightened sensitivity to vegetation and moisture dynamics—namely, the kernel normalized difference vegetation index and the kernel normalized difference moisture index—were introduced to develop an improved water benefit-based ecological index (ImWBEI). Through an integrated analytical framework incorporating Theil–Sen trend analysis, Mann–Kendall significance testing, Hurst exponent analysis, an optimal parameter-based geographical detector, and a coupled coordination degree model, this research systematically evaluated the spatiotemporal patterns, future trends, driving mechanisms, and coordination with urbanization of the EEQ in Guangdong from 2000 to 2021. The results demonstrated that the ImWBEI enhanced the detailed characterization of complex underlying surfaces, such as urban built-up areas and land–water transition zones. Throughout the study period, the EEQ in Guangdong displayed a stable spatial distribution characterized by higher values in the north and lower values in the south. Concurrently, the EEQ significantly improved at a rate of 0.0092 per year. Hurst index analysis indicated that this trajectory would likely persist, with the future trend dominated by a pattern of weak persistent improvement. The comprehensive urbanization index was identified as the most critical factor influencing the spatial differentiation of the EEQ in Guangdong. Although notable north–south disparities were observed in the coordination between the EEQ and comprehensive urbanization, the provincial-level coupled coordination consistently improved. Consequently, this work yielded actionable insights and a replicable framework for ecological monitoring and coordinated development in similar water–forest integrated urban regions. It was particularly relevant for informing ecological restoration prioritization and development restriction decisions in critical land–water transition zones—areas where the ImWBEI demonstrated enhanced sensitivity. Full article

Mangrove extent has increased in many regions under strengthened conservation policies and large-scale restoration programs. Nevertheless, mangrove ecosystems continue to face multiple pressures, including limited total area, habitat degradation, biodiversity decline, and biological invasion, and localized deterioration in ecosystem structure and function has been increasingly reported. Despite extensive mapping efforts, the spatiotemporal dynamics of mangrove degradation—particularly in tidally influenced environments—remain insufficiently understood. Focusing on the Nanliu River Delta, the largest deltaic mangrove system in the Northern Beibu Gulf of China, this study integrates long-term Landsat time-series imagery (1990–2025) with deep learning to quantify both mangrove extent change and canopy degradation. To mitigate tidal inundation effects, a NDVI Pseudo-P75 compositing strategy was applied using Google Earth Engine (GEE), enabling consistent observation of mangrove canopies across tidal stages. Global Mangrove Watch v4 (GMW-V4) and HGMF2020 mangrove dataset for China were used as reference labels to train a ResNet34–UNet segmentation framework incorporating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) constraints. The model achieved high classification performance, with an IoU of 0.822 for mangroves and 0.981 for background, yielding a mean IoU of 0.902. The resulting maps, following manual verification, provided a robust basis for spatiotemporal and degradation analyses. Canopy condition was further assessed using the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), which is less prone to saturation in high-biomass mangrove stands. Results show that mangrove area in the Nanliu River Delta expanded from 266 ha in 1990 to 1414 ha in 2025, with the annual expansion rate after 2005 being nearly seven times higher than that before 2005. Despite this net gain, a cumulative loss of 347.45 ha was recorded, primarily during 1990–2000, with approximately 70% converted to aquaculture and coastal engineering. Spatial analysis revealed that mangrove expansion occurred predominantly seaward, whereas both mangrove loss and canopy degradation exhibited an inverse J-shaped relationship with seawall proximity. More than 80% of mangrove loss occurred within 200 m of seawalls, indicating concentrated anthropogenic encroachment, while 75.6% of canopy degradation was observed within 350 m, potentially reflecting landward forest senescence. These results indicate a transition in dominant threats from permanent land conversion in the late 20th century to more subtle, internal functional degradation in recent decades, underscoring the need to complement extent-based assessments with canopy condition monitoring in mangrove conservation and management. Full article

Long-term ecological monitoring is essential for sustainable management in fragile regions. This study assessed four decades (1986–2024) of ecological evolution in the Ji River Basin—a 1276.64 km² transitional loess–gully ecosystem in China’s Yellow River Basin—using the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI). We integrated multi-temporal Landsat images via Google Earth Engine to construct a 40-year RSEI time series. The index couples greenness (NDVI), wetness (WET), heat (LST), and dryness (NDBSI) through principal component analysis, with PC1 explaining > 82% of the variance. Three evolutionary phases were identified: initial degradation (1986–1996), driven by slope cropland expansion; stabilization (1996–2006), coinciding with early ‘Grain for Green’ policies; and sustained recovery (2006–2024), characterized by the expansion of high-quality zones. We developed a novel resilience zoning framework integrating local spatial consistency, terrain constraints, and functional state (mean RSEI 2016–2024), which delineated three zones: high-resilience refugia (19.37%), moderate-resilience matrix (75.54%), and low-resilience corridors (5.09%). Mid-slope positions (TPI: 1.220–1.510) within moderate-resilience zones demonstrated optimal restoration efficiency, challenging conventional uniform approaches. The findings advocate spatially differentiated strategies—investing in transitional zones, retrofitting degraded corridors, and monitoring stable refugia—to advance the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 15 in semi-arid regions globally. Full article

Monitoring environmental changes over time requires images with extensive historical depth. However, high spatial resolution images often lack such depth. This study investigates the impact of spatial resolution on image classification. Thus, Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 images acquired between October and December 2020 were processed and classified using Random Forest regression on Google Earth Engine (GEE). This method allows for continuous land cover maps, required for robust assessment of land cover dynamics in patchy landscapes. A total of 1719 training samples were collected from the Collect Earth Online (CEO) platform to train the model. In addition to the spectral bands, vegetation indices were considered to optimize classification results. The study revealed statistical differences in land cover areas estimated by the two sensors. These differences are statistically significant at p < 0.001, although they are small. Validation results showed that the RMSE from Sentinel-2 is slightly lower than that from Landsat 8, with this difference significant at p < 0.05. Therefore, spatial resolution influences the accuracy of image classification. Nevertheless, given the observed differences between the two sensors, which ranged from 0.03% to 3.94% across land covers, Landsat imagery remains suitable for producing reliable land cover maps in heterogeneous landscapes. Full article

Climate change and growing populations are major challenges for food security. Understanding single-season rice (SSR) growth patterns and how much area changes over time is essential for sustaining rice distribution patterns and ensuring food security. This study utilized ground trothing data with the remote sensing (RS) technique for estimation of the SSR pattern in Jiangsu Province. A total of 1700 rice and 470 non-rice points were collected during the field visit in April–September 2023 across Jiangsu Province. The current study employed advanced machine learning (ML) and the random forest (RF) model using Google Earth Engine (GEE). This study evaluates the SSR cropping area, including the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), land surface temperature (LST), and land use–land cover (LULC) variation from 2018 to 2023 with different satellites. The results of NDVI show an increasing trend with mean values rising from 0.30 in 2018 to 0.42 in 2023. Additionally, higher mean values of LST were noticed in 2020 by 14.4 °C and in 2022 by 14.1 °C. Furthermore, the SSR area has significantly changed, mostly in the eastern and southern regions of Jiangsu Province, from 2018 to 2023. The higher rice cropping area decreased by 1.42% in 2019 compared to 2018, while the total reduction over the 2018–2023 period was 0.92%. Total cultivated crop areas continued to decline because most of the crop areas changed into built-up areas, resulting in a total variation of 2.75% from 2020 to 2023. The overall accuracy of RF model range was 77.33% to 93.55% with a Kappa coefficient of 0.55 and 0.87, indicating moderate to substantial classification agreement across the study period. The results of LULC indicate that the crop area decreased by 4.13% from 2018 to 2023, and major areas were converted into water bodies and built areas. In conclusion, the single-season cropping pattern decreased during the study period, accompanied by a reduction in total cropland area in Jiangsu Province. Therefore, these findings highlight the influence of urbanization and climate change on agricultural land and emphasize adaptive strategies in Jiangsu Province to ensure food security in the face of environmental challenges. Full article

Land use and land cover change (LULC) driven by agricultural expansion has become a major environmental challenge in tropical regions, particularly in coffee-producing landscapes, where economic growth often conflicts with forest conservation. This study integrates multi-temporal land cover analysis and future scenario modeling to assess LULC dynamics associated with coffee expansion in the district of Ocumal, in the Amazona Peru. Land cover classes were identified using a Random Forest classification approach applied to Landsat imagery from 2000, 2010, and 2020 processed in Google Earth Engine (GEE), while future scenarios for 2030 and 2040 were simulated using the MOLUSCE plugin in QGIS 2.18. Cross-tabulation matrices and annual rates of change were calculated using IDRISI SELVA 17.0. The results show increases of 12.6% and 7.4% in coffee crop area during 2000–2010 and 2010–2020, respectively, alongside a significant reduction in forest and grassland cover (−5.06% and −2.10% during 2010–2020), mainly driven by agricultural expansion facilitated by transportation infrastructure and market accessibility. This study contributes to the international literature by providing empirical evidence from the Peruvian Amazon on the long-term impacts of coffee expansion on land use and land cover, supporting land-use planning and sustainable agriculture in tropical regions. Full article

Climate change has among its effects the increasing frequency and intensity of natural disasters, such as landslides, floods, erosion and fires, with clear implications on both natural and anthropic hazards and risks. These natural phenomena pose a growing threat to archaeological heritage through increased rates of soil erosion, flooding, and landslides. This study presents a multidisciplinary approach to assess the erosion risk affecting medieval rural settlements in the Basilicata Region of Southern Italy. This area is characterised by high-impact natural phenomena that have influenced settlement patterns in the past. The focus is on rural settlements that arose during the Middle Ages, some of which were abandoned as early as the late Middle Ages. This study has the dual objective of analysing the natural causes that may have led to the abandonment of many sites in ancient times and producing a predictive multi-risk map of the possible loss of cultural heritage sites. By integrating archaeological data, remote sensing, historical sources, and geospatial modelling, a multi-risk map was developed to identify areas at the highest risk. The results demonstrate the urgent need for proactive conservation strategies in the face of ongoing climatic change. Full article

Environmental degradation in Iraq is a critical issue that requires strong monitoring. One indication of land degradation is a decrease in or loss of vegetation cover. This study examines changes in vegetation and productivity in the Thi-Qar region from 2001 to 2022, using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and net primary production (NPP), and their response to climatic and hydrological factors. To address the gap in assessments that simultaneously quantify the influence of streamflow, rainfall, and temperature across distinct land cover classes in arid and semi-arid regions, we developed a replicable multi-source geospatial framework. We used MODIS data within the Google Earth Engine platform to perform spatiotemporal analysis. We applied models to detect NDVI trends on a pixel-by-pixel basis. This study provides the first integrated, data-driven assessment of vegetation sensitivity to streamflow versus climate in the Thi-Qar Governorate using a harmonized multi-source dataset. This combines the FAO WaPOR NPP dataset with hydrological (streamflow) and climatic (CHIRPS rainfall, MODIS LST) variables within an analytical workflow to extract anthropogenic water management from climatic drivers. The results showed variations in the NDVI and productivity in the southern and southwestern regions, indicating areas of both degradation and improvement. The analysis found that 12% of the study area showed improvement, while 56.5% of the area showed degradation. Additionally, we classified the study area as either vegetation (cropland) or non-vegetation (fallow arable land, bare areas, and sand dunes). A multiple regression model was then applied to these categories to examine the relationships between streamflow, precipitation, land surface temperature (LST), and the NDVI. The multiple regression for the entire region showed that these factors explained 45.1% of NDVI variation, with streamflow being the most significant positive driver (p < 0.001). The result showed that the NDVI in cropland and arable land was strongly positively correlated with both precipitation and streamflow (R = 0.78, R = 0.75). In contrast, bare land and dunes showed weaker relationships (R = 0.26 and 0.51, respectively). Of these factors, streamflow had the most significant influence in explaining vegetation change (partial correlation p = 0.53), indicating the importance of human management in addition to climate. Full article

Vegetation cover characteristics underpin the understanding of regional ecosystem status and guide sustainable development. While extensive research has documented long-term vegetation dynamics in Qinghai Province, critical gaps remain in identifying driving factors, quantifying their thresholds, and uncovering nonlinear relationships governing vegetation cover. In view of this, based on the MOD13Q1V6 dataset from the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, this study constructed a kernel normalized difference vegetation index (kNDVI) dataset for Qinghai Province spanning the period 2001–2023. Furthermore, the spatiotemporal characteristics and future evolution trends of vegetation cover were revealed by employing methods including the Theil–Sen–Mann–Kendall (Theil–Sen–MK) trend test, Hurst exponent, and centroid migration model. At a grid scale of 5 km × 5 km, based on the combined model of Extreme Gradient Boosting and SHapley Additive exPlanations (XGBoost-SHAP), this study integrated 10 multi-source remote sensing variables related to natural conditions, socioeconomic factors, and geographical accessibility to reveal the nonlinear effects between driving factors and kNDVI and identify the key threshold inflection points. The results showed the following: (1) From 2001 to 2023, the kNDVI of Qinghai Province exhibited a fluctuating growth trend with an annual growth rate of 0.0016 per year, presenting a spatial pattern of being higher in the southeast and lower in the northwest. Specifically, the kNDVI of unused land achieved the highest growth rate (65.96%), which was significantly higher than that of other land use types. (2) The kNDVI in Qinghai Province was dominated by stable areas, accounting for 52.75%. Future trend analysis indicated that the region was primarily characterized by sustainable improvement zones (39.91%), while areas with uncertain future trends accounted for 39.70%. (3) The XGBoost-SHAP model revealed that the annual mean precipitation (AMP) (47.26%) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (20.40%) exerted substantial impacts on the kNDVI. Marginal effect curves identified distinct threshold inflection points for the major characteristic factors: AMP = 363.2 mm (95%CI: 361.2–365.2 mm), DEM = 4463.9 m (95%CI: 4446.0–4481.1 m), grazing intensity = 1.8 SU (Stocking Unit)·ha⁻¹ (95%CI: 1.8–1.9 SU·ha⁻¹), and slope = 2.8° (95%CI: 2.7–3.0°) and 19.0° (95%CI: 18.8–19.3°). The interaction combinations of AMP × DEM and DEM × distance to construction land exerted a strong positive effect on the kNDVI in the study area, which was conducive to enhancing vegetation cover. These findings verified the effectiveness of ecological projects implemented in Qinghai Province to a certain extent and provided data support for subsequent differentiated restoration and management. Full article