Abstract
Scientific Literacy requires educational approaches across both formal and informal context, including Science Education and Science Communication (SC) on social media. This paper presents an educational research study involving Grade 5 and 8 students in Italy, focusing on their initial perceptions of SC on social media. Data presented were collected through collaborative discussions and Padlet activity, and analysed using qualitative content analysis. Data analysis and comparison with the literature showed that students possess an intuitive understanding of some key features of SC, while lacking others. These findings informed the design of teaching materials, making students actively involved in their learning.
1. Introduction
Achieving Scientific Literacy (SL), which has become increasingly important after the rapid development of science and technology of the last years [1,2], requires STEM education to move beyond the mere acquisition of conceptual knowledge and to foster critical thinking and informed decision-making [2,3]. Nowadays, scientific content is widely disseminated in both formal and informal environments, including Science Education (SE) and Science Communication (SC) on social media [4,5]. While SE at school adopts a multidisciplinary and reflective approach that promotes both disciplinary knowledge and critical thinking [6], SC on social media fosters public trust in science by conveying scientific messages through accessible language [5,7]. However, research still shows limited integration between SE and SC, leading to limited educational practices that combine these two fields [8,9]. Within this context, investigating students’ prior perceptions of SC on social media can provide a starting point for designing educational activities that connect these two fields. The research aims to contribute to addressing this gap by combining SE and SC within an educational research study designed to foster students’ SL. In particular, the project investigates how edutainment, the combination of education and entertainment [10], can be used to connect SE and SC on social media to develop SL in students. Ultimately, the project aims to develop educational instruments and guidelines for STEM teachers that can be adapted and shared across different educational contexts, thereby contributing to innovation in teaching practice [11,12].
More specifically, this paper focuses on the analysis of data collected during a specific activity conducted at the beginning of an educational programme. This activity aimed to reveal and assess students’ prior perceptions of SC before the educational intervention. Rather than considering prior knowledge only as a diagnostic tool, the study investigates how these can be integrated with findings from the literature to inform the design of teaching materials for SC on social media. In this study, an SC social media video is defined as a short and engaging video presenting scientifically accurate content connected to everyday lives, using clear language, storytelling, humour, and visual support [13,14,15,16,17]. Therefore, the contribution of the paper lies not only in describing students’ prior knowledge, but also in showing how such knowledge can become a resource for designing educational materials aimed at fostering SL.
To contextualise the activity, the broader research project consisted of two phases. The first phase involved an integrative review exploring the relationship and implementation lines between SC on social media and SE through edutainment. Building on these findings, the second phase consisted of an educational research study implemented in six Italian classes: three Grade 5 and three Grade 8 (106 students), located in central urban areas, outlying neighbourhoods, and outlying municipalities. The areas were identified in order to collect diverse and relevant data.
The educational programme aimed to raise students’ awareness of the opportunities and risks of SC on social media while investigating how they engage with SC in schools as they develop SL. Specifically, the programme encouraged students to become active and critical consumers of SC on social media, aware of its mechanisms, and to take on the role of researchers and science communicators. To achieve this goal, students participated in activities designed to critically analyse SC content, learn how to conduct online research on scientific topics, and create their own SC content to share and discuss with peers. Moreover, throughout the programme, multiple sources of qualitative data were collected and analysed to evaluate its educational effectiveness.
2. Methods
The study aims to answer the following question: What are students’ initial perceptions of effective Science Communication videos on social media, and how can these perceptions inform the design of teaching materials? It adopts a phenomenological approach to investigate the experiences and meanings constructed by the students and teachers involved in the study [18]. Data were collected through various qualitative methods, including participant observations, semi-structured interviews, self-assessments, audio recording, Padlet, students’ products and pre–post intervention tasks. The data were analysed through content analysis [19] and the crystallisation technique, allowing different sources of data to be integrated into a coherent narration of the educational experience [20].
This presentation focuses on the data collected through a Padlet activity generated from a guided classroom discussion, during which students reflected on the elements they considered necessary for making an SC video.
In the Grade 5 classes, students had varying levels of familiarity with the social media environment, also reflecting differences in family rules regarding social media use. For this reason, a preliminary experiential activity was conducted to connect the discussion topic with their lived experiences. Students watched a series of short sketches on scientific topics that reproduced the main characteristics of SC videos commonly found on social media. Working in small groups, they evaluated each sketch using a “like” or “dislike” voting paddle and then discussed the reasons for their choices. Their ideas and reflections were collected in a Padlet, resulting in a shared and collaborative list of criteria that they considered important when creating an SC video for social media.
In the Grade 8 classes, students were more familiar with social media mechanisms and, due to time constraints, the sketches were omitted. Instead, the activity consisted of a guided classroom discussion with students about the elements they considered necessary for creating this type of video. Their ideas and reflections were again organised in a Padlet, generating a shared list of criteria.
This activity was proposed before the teaching material was introduced, as its purpose was both to explore students’ prior knowledge and to inform the design of teaching materials. In particular, it allowed key elements to emerge directly from students’ ideas, which were subsequently connected with findings from the literature review.
The analysis presented below examines six Padlets, one produced by each participant class. Data were analysed through qualitative inductive content analysis [19]. Students’ contributions were divided into excerpts, each representing a meaningful unit of analysis. Each excerpt was then assigned a conceptual label that captured its meaning while remaining faithful to the participants’ language. Finally, the labels were grouped into broader categories and organised into a coding system that reflects students’ perspective on the process of creating an SC video. Therefore, the coding system was generated inductively from students’ thoughts and language, without the use of a predefined codebook or literature-based categories.
3. Results
Analysis of the Padlet producing during the classroom discussions shows that students identified elements that can be grouped into three main categories: Planning, Content and Communication. These categories were subsequently adopted in the design of the teaching materials and connected with findings from the literature review. The coding system developed through the Padlet analysis presents the categories, their corresponding labels, and their frequency of occurrence (Table 1).
Table 1.
Coding system of Padlet analysis.
The following sections describe students’ prior perceptions as they emerged from the analysis of each category and label. Each category is then discussed in relation to the literature to illustrate how the teaching materials were developed.
3.1. Planning
The first category concerns the planning of a SC video, including organising its content, defining communication strategies, and considering its overall length. Two labels emerged within this category: Storytelling (4%) and Appropriate length of the video (2%).
In the first label, students highlighted the importance of creating a story when presenting a scientific content through social media videos, referring to “stories that make sense” and “funny little stories”.
These responses reflect the concept of storytelling described in the literature, which emphasises the use of relevant, concise text with a narrative structure [17] and the use of the “and, but, therefore” storytelling approach [14]. Making a story represents a key element of SC because it evokes strong and positive emotions and promotes audience engagement in a meaningful way [14,15,17].
The second label concerns the scheduled time, which students described as “short enough, not too long”.
This suggests an initial awareness of the issue of video length, which is particularly relevant in the context of social media, where content should be short and fast-paced to fit the platform’s mechanisms [13,15]. Previous studies also indicate that communicators should be aware that faster speech tends to increase engagement, whereas slower speech enhances comprehension [21]. Consequently, communicators need to balance these two elements through careful planning and editing [15].
3.2. Content
The Content category includes criteria related to the scientific message itself, particularly its understanding, credibility and relevancy for the audience.
The most frequently cited label was Comprehensibility (22%). Students emphasised that videos should be easy to understand by “explaining clearly” in order to “make themselves understood.” They suggested “using simple language appropriate for the audience (classmates)” or “for children” and “peers”, “avoiding difficult words or explain them in an easy way” and “using everyday language, be clear and concise”. They also stressed the importance of “summarise the content”.
These perceptions align with the literature, which highlights the importance of making scientific content accessible, accurate, and understandable for the audience [16,22]. Some studies also recommend adopting effective linguistic choices that convey intimacy, informality and affinity that improve comprehensibility by connecting scientific concepts with everyday experiences [15]. Furthermore, effective SC requires a coherent message that remains consistent with the objectives of the video [23], while simplifying scientific language by focusing on a clear and concrete core message [14].
The second cited label within this category is the use of Clear images (14%) that highlights the role of visual elements in making scientific content more understandable, engaging, and credible. According to students, images should be “pleasant,” “funny and clear,” “meaningful,” and able to “prove what you are saying” and “shows the content”.
Similarly, the literature recommends the careful use of images, graphics, and text to support communication [24,25], emphasising that visuals should be attractive, coherent, interesting and relevant to the content [15,16,17,22].
Students also identified Reliability (12%) as an essential characteristic of scientific content. They argued that communicators should provide “true” and “serious” information by providing “verified information” and demonstrating they are “informed and confident on the topic”.
This finding highlights the importance of communicators’ awareness of their objectives during a video, regarding conveying values, showing competence and delivering products and services [13,22,23].
Moreover, for students the content needs to be relevant for the audience, for instance sparking Interest (6%), “being interesting” or containing “curiosities or effects”.
Likewise, the literature suggests several strategies for generating interest, including presenting scientific problems and their solutions, discussing current affairs and political issues, describing field activities and expeditions, or selecting topics that connect with the audience’s interests and previous knowledge [16,17,22,26,27].
Finally, students highlighted the significance of proposing Practical examples (4%), such as with “examples from daily life to make it (the content) realistic”. Connecting with the audience’s prior knowledge and experiences improves their ability to understand and evaluate the authenticity and credibility of the content.
This aspect also reflects some research, which recommends sharing personal stories [16,28] and connecting science to everyday experiences in order to enhance both engagement and understanding [13,14,15,28].
3.3. Communication
The final category concerns communication modalities that should be considered when creating an SC video.
The most frequently mentioned label was Engagement (24%), confirming that students considered audience involvement one of the key characteristics of an effective SC video. According to them, videos “should not be boring, engaging and addressing the audience”; for example, they should encourage interaction by “engaging someone to write comments”, “promoting reflection” and “curiosity”. They also suggested “using suspense”, “being pleasant”, “using background music” or “start with a catchy sentence” or “make jokes”.
As a core element of SC, these perceptions are strongly supported by the literature. Studies recommend that communicators capture the audience’s attention through effective hooks at the beginning of the video, such as an appealing introduction in the form of a question or a statement that stimulates reflection [15,17]. Moreover, communicators should adopt an authentic communication style by using a conversational tone, personal anecdotes, or humour [15], offering engaging and enjoyable ways to discuss scientific topics. To this end, communicators should bear in mind that dynamic experimental videos achieve the highest levels of engagement [29], as they present science in an enjoyable way. Additionally, promoting interaction can enhance engagement through both one-to-one interactions, such as asking the audience about their interests via polls [16,22], and broader community interactions through comments, shares, and likes [25]. In relation to the latter, analysing social media analytics can help communicators identify the most effective strategies for promoting engagement and better understand audience engagement [13,15,17].
The final label that emerged from students’ discussions is about Enjoyment (12%), which refers to the joy and the positive emotions a SC video should generate.
Students argued that communicators should present scientific content “with joy… drive”, should “be happy to explain and not boring”, “be funny”, and should “say something funny” and “engaging”.
Similarly, the literature highlights enjoyment as a central component of effective SC, suggesting the use of humour, memes, unexpected and bizarre content, parodies, and other forms of edutainment [14,15,16,22,23]. Rather than reducing scientific rigour, these elements can increase audience engagement when professional and playful styles are combined with accurate and credible information [16].
4. Discussion
The findings show that students have an overall understanding of the main elements that should be included in an SC video for social media. These elements can be grouped into three categories: Planning, Content, and Communication.
The first category concerns the planning of the video, including its length and narrative structure, and contains the fewest labels and occurrences. Students focused more on content-related aspects, which include a greater number of labels, some of which are mentioned more frequently than others. Within this category, they particularly emphasised the importance of comprehensibility, highlighting the use of easy, accessible language and clear images. The latter was frequently mentioned and was associated with two main purposes: improving comprehension and increasing reliability. Both aspects contribute significantly to the effectiveness of the video. Furthermore, students identified reliability as a distinct characteristic of pictures, stressing that information should be accurate, truthful, and based on verified information. The least frequently cited labels concerned the use of practical examples and interesting content. Although these aspects were mentioned less often, students still recognised their value in making scientific content more understandable and engaging. Finally, within the Communication category, students emphasised the importance of producing videos that are both engaging and enjoyable. These characteristics are essential for the communicative effectiveness of SC videos.
As the term itself suggests, SC requires attention to both scientific content and communication. Students primarily referred to these two dimensions, particularly the comprehensibility of the content and audience engagement. This suggests that they already recognise two of the core dimensions of effective SC. Moreover, the frequent references to clear images and reliability indicate that students value not only understanding and engagement, but also scientific accuracy and credibility. This finding suggests an initial awareness that the quality of scientific content on social media can vary considerably.
In addition, the comparison between students’ perceptions and the literature review shows that all the elements spontaneously identified by students were also reflected in the literature. This suggests that students are generally able to recognise the key characteristics of an effective SC video. However, the comparison with the literature also highlights several dimensions that did not emerge spontaneously during the classroom discussions. These gaps informed the design of the teaching materials, which were intentionally developed to build upon students’ prior knowledge while introducing additional dimensions identified in the literature.
Regarding Planning, the literature emphasises the importance of collaboration among communicators, who should work as a team and establish partnerships beyond their own communication channels [17]. Although this aspect did not emerge from students’ discussions, it was incorporated into the teaching materials to encourage collaborative work within small groups and across the classroom throughout the project.
With regard to Content, the literature highlights several additional elements that were not mentioned by students. For example, SC should explicitly present educational posts aimed at explaining scientific concepts and findings to the audience [17,30], underlining its educational role alongside its communicative one. In addition, communicators should not only engage their audience but also promote new ideas to inform and revise their beliefs, thereby promoting positive change and reducing misconceptions [25,31]. Previous studies also emphasise the importance of discussing scientific integrity, accountability for scientific misconduct, and the social responsibility of science [16,31]. These aspects can help audiences develop a more informed understanding of science and strengthen their ability to critically evaluate scientific information, including misinformation and fake news. Finally, the literature recommends diversifying the content presented in order to maintain audience interest over time [22].
Regarding Communication, the literature likewise suggests several elements that extend students’ initial perceptions. For example, using short, catchy and concise titles at the beginning of a video can increase audience engagement, although communicators should avoid clickbait in order to preserve credibility and coherence throughout the video [13,22]. Other recommended strategies include sharing personal experiences as scientists [15,16,28], which can strengthen the communicator’s credibility and foster a closer relationship with the audience. The literature also suggests using a variety of communication formats, such as monologues, vlogs, animations, documentaries, and Q&A sessions [26], as well as including clear calls to action to encourage audience participation during and after the video [15,31].
Some elements may not have emerged in students’ initial perceptions because they concern more complex aspects of SC, including scientific integrity, social responsibility, or specific communication strategies, while students may more easily recognise immediately observable features. Identifying these gaps can guide the educational programme towards areas requiring further development. Accordingly, the teaching materials incorporated these elements to support students in creating and critically evaluating SC videos and can be adapted by teachers to different scientific topics and educational contexts according to students’ prior knowledge and skills.
The study has some limitations. Findings are context-specific and should be generalised with caution, while peer visibility and social desirability may have influenced students’ contributions. Differences in the Grade 5 and Grade 8 activities also limit comparisons between the two groups. Finally, coding was conducted by a single researcher without an inter-rater reliability check, although labels and categories reflected the original contributions and language of the students.
5. Conclusions
Students’ discussions and Padlets reveal an intuitive understanding of some key dimensions of SC, particularly comprehensibility, engagement, and reliability. However, not all relevant dimensions emerged frequently, and several elements identified in the literature were absent from students’ discussions. This suggests an initial level of awareness that requires further development and consolidation.
The teaching programme and the associated teaching materials were designed to strengthen this knowledge and awareness through the proposed educational activities. For this reason, the students’ prior knowledge collected during the initial activity served as the foundation for developing teaching materials on the creation of SC social media videos. In particular, the categories identified through the analysis were integrated with findings from the literature review and subsequently adopted in the teaching materials. Using the same categories creates a bridge between students’ prior ideas and the new knowledge introduced during the programme. Indeed, while the teaching materials build upon students’ existing perceptions, they also extend them by incorporating additional dimensions identified in the literature review. Therefore, alongside the research objective of exploring students’ prior knowledge, the study also pursued an educational objective of actively involving students in the construction of their own learning materials.
Furthermore, integrating students’ prior perceptions with the findings of the literature review made it possible to identify both the dimensions of SC that students already recognise and those that require further development. This process informed the design of the teaching materials, which were developed by taking into account both students’ existing knowledge and the areas in which they needed further support. In this sense, students’ prior perceptions became a valuable resource for designing the educational intervention.
In conclusion, given the growing relevance of social media in young people’s everyday lives [32], this study highlights the value of integrating SE and SC within educational settings. Building educational activities upon students’ initial perceptions while enriching them through evidence from the literature can support a more critical and informed access to scientific information online, thereby contributing to the development of SL.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R.S. and S.P.; methodology, R.S. and S.P.; formal analysis, S.P.; investigation, S.P.; resources, S.P.; data curation, S.P.; writing—original draft preparation, S.P.; writing—review and editing, R.S. and S.P.; supervision, R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Human Sciences Department at the University of Verona (Prot n. 167566 of 8 April 2025).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
Data available on request due to privacy restrictions.
Acknowledgments
During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT Edu (https://openai.com/index/introducing-chatgpt-edu/, accessed on 19 August 2024) for the purposes of improving the English language. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
| SL | Scientific Literacy |
| SE | Science Education |
| SC | Science Communication |
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