From Perception to Empowerment: Addressing Identity Issues in Learners with Disabilities Through Foucault’s Lens in South African Full-Service Schools

Abstract

This study examines how peer perceptions and school power dynamics shape the identity development of learners with disabilities in South African full-service schools. Guided by Michel Foucault’s lens, particularly ‘care of the self,’ the research explores pathways from vulnerability to empowerment. Using a qualitative, exploratory design, data were generated through semi-structured interviews with learners (n = 20; ages 12–18) and non-participant classroom observations across four full-service schools, followed by thematic analysis with double-coding to enhance reliability. Findings show that negative peer perceptions and routine categorisation practices intensify isolation, self-doubt, and internalised stigma; yet many learners actively navigate identity threats via self-advocacy, supportive relationships, and self-care practices (e.g., mindfulness, journaling, goal setting). These practices are associated with greater self-awareness, confidence, and agency, particularly where school climates promote inclusion, positive peer interaction, and arts/sport participation. The analysis highlights a persistent tension between biopower in schooling (assessment, surveillance, normalisation) and students’ self-care efforts; however, supportive environments mitigate this tension and enable identity affirmation. The study concludes that embedding structured self-care opportunities, strengthening positive peer cultures, and integrating disability perspectives across the curriculum can convert harmful perceptions into opportunities for resilient identity formation and learner empowerment.

1. Introduction and Literature Review

This chapter outlines the study’s background and situates it within existing research, presented in two parts: an introduction and a literature review.

1.1. Introduction

Historically, disability has been shaped by deficit-based and medicalised narratives that positioned people with disabilities as dependent, incapable, or deviant. These longstanding constructions continue to influence how schools perceive and respond to disability, shaping learners’ sense of self within environments governed by norms of productivity, behaviour, and ability. Current disability research highlights that disability identity emerges through the interplay of stigma, social acknowledgement, feelings of belonging, and broader cultural narratives (Forber-Pratt, 2019; Dirth & Branscombe, 2018). For many individuals with disabilities, identity develops through shared narratives and collective affirmation within supportive communities (Żuchowska-Skiba, 2025). Building on this broader sociocultural framing, it becomes essential to consider how school contexts specifically influence the identity development of learners with disabilities.

School environments can either strengthen or weaken identity formation depending on inclusivity, peer culture, and teacher practices. In the South African context, identity struggles are shaped by peer interactions and national inclusion policies such as Education White Paper 6 (Department of Education, 2001). Although the policy aims to promote equitable access, its implementation often involves categorisation, monitoring, and differentiated support that may intensify learners’ sense of difference.

Identity struggles are often exacerbated by negative peer perceptions and entrenched social norms, which may heighten vulnerability to identity crises (Szumski et al., 2020). By examining how peer perceptions contribute to these struggles, this study explores the pathways through which learners navigate identity formation and seek empowerment. To deepen understanding of these identity challenges, this study uses Michel Foucault’s theoretical concepts as an interpretive lens.

Foucault’s concept of care of the self (Gros, 2019) provides a lens for understanding how learners cultivate agency within institutional structures. Practices such as assessment, referral, and behaviour monitoring in full-service schools reflect power relations that shape learners’ subjectivities (Dai et al., 2025).

This study examines how peer perceptions and school-based power relations influence the identity development of learners with disabilities in South African full-service schools. It further investigates how self-care practices support learners’ efforts to negotiate and resist negative perceptions. The study contributes to inclusive education discourse by applying Foucauldian concepts to highlight pathways from vulnerability to empowerment and to inform practices that strengthen supportive school environments.

The aim of this study is to examine how peer perceptions and school-based power relations shape the identity development of learners with disabilities in South African full-service schools, and how learners use self-care practices to navigate these influences. Guided by Foucault’s concepts of biopower and care of the self, the study addresses the following research questions:

• How do peer perceptions influence the identity development of learners with disabilities in full-service schools?
• How do school-based practices and power relations shape learners’ experiences of inclusion and belonging?
• How do learners engage in self-care practices to negotiate identity challenges and develop agency within school contexts?

1.2. Literature Review

1.2.1. Disability Identity: Sociocultural and Educational Perspectives

Disability identity is shaped by psychological, social, and political factors, including peer norms, visibility of disability, and the availability of supportive environments (McDonald & Crandall, 2015; Daley & Rappolt-Schlichtmann, 2018; Haft et al., 2023). Stigma and institutional practices play a significant role in shaping identity and can hinder academic and social engagement (Hong, 2015; Daley & Rappolt-Schlichtmann, 2018). Taken together, this empirical literature shows how social interactions shape identity, creating a foundation for examining the theoretical mechanisms underlying these processes.

Stigma operates through explicit and subtle exclusions, including mockery, avoidance, and normalising judgments, which influence learners’ self-concept and opportunities for participation (Chatzitheochari & Butler-Rees, 2023; Falk & Sansour, 2024). While collective affirmation may support positive identity development (Żuchowska-Skiba, 2025), school environments vary in the extent to which they foster or undermine such affirmation.

1.2.2. The South African Context and Inclusion Policy

While global scholarship provides valuable insight, the South African policy context introduces unique dynamics that further shape disability identity formation. [Revision added: Merged at the start to introduce the contextual shift.] Education White Paper 6 seeks to establish an inclusive education system, yet its implementation frequently involves categorisation, assessment, and labelling that may reinforce difference (Mphanda, 2018; Franz et al., 2023). The designation of full-service schools can further contribute to learner separation. In the South African inclusive education system, full-service schools are mainstream schools designated under Education White Paper 6 to accommodate learners with diverse learning needs through moderate levels of curriculum differentiation and learner support, while remaining within the mainstream schooling system (Department of Education, 2001). They occupy a middle position between ordinary mainstream schools and special schools in the continuum of support. These practices reflect institutional mechanisms such as normalisation and differentiation documented in broader disability research (Slee, 2018; Barkas et al., 2022). In Foucauldian terms, normalisation refers to the production of norms that establish expectations, classify individuals, and rank deviations from those norms (Jha, 2024). It does not imply egalitarian or uniform treatment. Jha (2024) further asserts that normalisation highlights how institutions create standards against which learners are measured, producing categories of “normal” and “abnormal,” which then shape how inclusion and support are operationalised within schools. [Next revision added: This section has been revised to reconcile Foucauldian normalisation with contemporary inclusion discourse.] While Foucauldian normalisation operates through classification, surveillance, and normative judgement, inclusion principles in education emphasise equity, context-sensitive support, and differentiated provision rather than sameness. Inclusive education, therefore, seeks to disrupt the effects of normalisation (Alasuutari et al., 2024). It does so, not by erasing difference, but by recognising diverse learner needs and challenging deficit-based ranking practices that position some learners as “abnormal.” As a result, inclusive schooling may simultaneously provide opportunities for participation and reproduce marginalising structures.

1.2.3. Foucault’s Theoretical Lens: Discipline, Biopower, and Care of the Self

To interpret how policy and schooling practices shape identity, Foucauldian theory offers a useful explanatory framework. Foucault conceptualised institutions as spaces structured by relations of power, surveillance, and normalisation. These concepts have been widely applied to education research (Ball, 2017). Practices such as categorisation, behavioural monitoring, and assessment in full-service schools illustrate the operation of biopower (Adams, 2017; Dai et al., 2025).

Care of the self describes how individuals cultivate agency within such structures through reflection and disciplined self-development (Taylor, 2018; Cao, 2025). Learners may employ practices such as mindfulness, journaling, and relational support to strengthen their sense of identity (Jiménez & Valle-Vázquez, 2018; Brown & Leigh, 2020). However, these practices occur within institutional contexts that can both support and constrain self-understanding.

1.2.4. Research Gap

Despite growing literature on disability identity and Foucauldian educational analysis, notable gaps remain. While research has examined stigma, peer norms, and identity development, and some studies have explored Foucauldian perspectives in education (Dai et al., 2025; Takács, 2025; Wiklund, 2026), there is limited research addressing how these dynamics intersect specifically in South African full-service schools. Limited attention has been given to how peer perceptions, institutional power, and self-care practices work together to shape identity formation. Furthermore, studies often emphasise marginalisation rather than empowerment (Chatzitheochari & Butler-Rees, 2023; Das & Ghosh, 2025; Tafirenyika et al., 2025).

This study fills this gap by applying a Foucauldian lens to examine how learners with disabilities negotiate identity formation in full-service schools, highlighting both the constraints of biopower and the empowering potential of self-care practices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethical Considerations

The study adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and received institutional ethical clearance. Because participants were minors, written informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians and assent from learners. To minimise gatekeeper influence, teachers facilitated only initial contact and logistics but were not present during interviews; learners were informed clearly that participation was voluntary and unrelated to academic standing or teacher expectations.

A risk-management protocol was implemented to safeguard participants’ wellbeing. Interviews were paused or discontinued if a learner showed signs of discomfort, and learners were reminded of their right to skip questions or withdraw at any time. Referral pathways were pre-arranged through each school’s School-Based Support Team (SBST) or designated psychosocial professional should emotional support be required following participation.

Given the small school communities, confidentiality was prioritised through the removal of direct and indirect identifiers, use of pseudonyms, and aggregation of contextual details to prevent deductive disclosure. Data were stored securely, accessible only to the research team, and all reporting avoided any descriptors that could enable identification of individual learners or their schools.

2.2. Research Design

This study employed a qualitative, exploratory research design to investigate the identity struggles of learners with disabilities within selected full-service schools in South Africa. This design was suitable for capturing the complex experiences and viewpoints of learners with disabilities, enabling a thorough comprehension of the processes by which their identities are formed. Given the interpretive nature of qualitative inquiry, it was important to account for the researcher’s influence on data generation and interpretation.

Reflexivity was therefore an integral part of the research process. The researcher maintained a reflexive journal throughout data collection and analysis to identify personal assumptions, monitor potential sources of bias, and reflect on interactions with participants. This process helped ensure that interpretations remained grounded in the learners’ lived experiences rather than the researcher’s preconceived views. Reflexive memo writing was also used during thematic analysis to support transparency and enhance the credibility of the findings. This approach is consistent with recent qualitative disability-studies research, where reflexive journaling and researcher positionality statements are used to enhance transparency and interpretive credibility (Young & Clerke, 2024; S. S. Lee et al., 2023).

2.3. Participants

The participants in this study were selected based on their identification as learners with disabilities within four full-service schools in one district of education. A total of 20 participants, aged between 12 and 18 years, were recruited through a local disability support organisation that worked with full-service schools and mainstream schools as well as help of their teachers. The participants represented a diverse range of disabilities, including physical, sensory, and learning disabilities, with conditions ranging from mild to moderate intellectual impairments to various forms of physical disabilities.

The four participating schools were designated as full-service schools under Education White Paper 6 and were located within the same district. They had similar resources, mainly, learner-support centres and one assistant teacher each. No specialised staff but teachers relied on once-off initial workshops offered by the Department of Education. English was the language for teaching and learning, with isiZulu offered as home language in all the schools. Class sizes ranged from 40 to 45 learners. Recruitment occurred through school-based support teams and teachers, with a partnering disability organisation assisting in contacting families and coordinating consent and assent.

A brief summary of participant demographics is presented in Table 1 to enhance methodological transparency. Individual-level details are not reported to protect anonymity, as the small sample of minors from identifiable school settings could be indirectly identifiable. Aggregated demographic information is therefore provided in line with ethical guidelines for research with vulnerable populations.

Table 1. Aggregated demographic characteristics of participating learners (N = 20).

Characteristic	Category	n (%)
Age range (years)	12–14	8 (40)
	15–16	6 (30)
	17–18	6 (30)
Gender	Female	10 (50)
	Male	10 (50)
Type of disability (broad categories) *	Physical	5 (25)
	Sensory	4 (20)
	Learning	7 (35)
	Mild–moderate intellectual	4 (20)
Disability visibility	Predominantly visible	9 (45)
	Predominantly non-visible	11 (55)

* Categories are not mutually exclusive, a small number of learners presented with co-occurring conditions. Note: All participants were recruited from four full-service schools within the same education district. Demographic characteristics are reported in aggregated form to enhance descriptive clarity while minimising the risk of deductive disclosure in a small sample of minors.

Across the four full-service schools, a total of twenty learners (approximately five per school), aged 12–18 years, participated in the study and included both male and female learners. Participants represented a diverse range of disability types, including physical, sensory, learning, and mild-to-moderate intellectual disabilities, with varying degrees of visibility, and a small number presented with co-occurring conditions. This heterogeneity was approached analytically as an interpretive resource rather than as a basis for comparison. During theme development, attention was given to how patterned experiences emerged across disability categories, while reflexive consideration ensured that variations related to disability type or visibility were acknowledged without fragmenting the dataset or imposing rigid categorical boundaries.

2.4. Data Collection Methods

Semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations were used to gather data. To maintain secrecy and confidentiality, the interviews, which lasted roughly 45 min each, were held in a private location outside the classroom. The semi-structured format allowed for flexibislity in exploring participants’ experiences while maintaining a focus on the research questions. The semi-structured interview guide was organised around key thematic domains aligned with the aim of the study. These domains included: learners’ experiences of peer interactions; perceptions of disability within the school context; experiences of inclusion and exclusion; identity-related challenges; and personal strategies for coping or engaging in self-care. Observations were conducted in classroom settings to have a better understanding of peer relationships and the learning environment.

Across the four schools, approximately eight classrooms were observed, generating about 12 h of data. Observations focused on peer interactions, participation in learning activities, and assessment routines. Fieldnotes captured contextual details, chronological events, and brief reflexive comments. These observations were used to complement interview data by highlighting how identity-related dynamics, such as stigma, support, and classroom norms appeared in practice and informed theme development.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data were analysed using an inductive thematic analysis approach, which involved a systematic and iterative process of familiarisation, coding, theme development, and refinement (Braun & Clarke, 2021, 2023).

The analysis began with multiple readings of the interview transcripts and observation field notes to gain an in-depth understanding of the learners’ experiences and to identify preliminary patterns arising from the data. NVivo 12 Plus (QSR International) software was used to facilitate the organisation, storage, and retrieval of coded segments, enabling a more structured and transparent analytic process.

Initial coding was conducted line by line to capture meaningful units of data, which were later grouped into broader categories and refined into themes that represented patterned meanings across participants. Throughout this process, the researcher engaged in reflexive memo writing to document analytic decisions, emerging insights, and potential biases. This reflexive practice supported transparency and deepened conceptual engagement. The development of the analytic schema also involved considering interview and observational material together to enrich interpretation and illuminate how themes manifested across different forms of data.

The analysis followed Reflexive Thematic Analysis as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2021, 2023), emphasising the active and interpretive role of the researcher throughout the analytic process. The coding was conducted inductively and iteratively, with reflexive memo-writing used to document evolving insights, positionality, and interpretive decisions. A second researcher read a subset of the transcripts; however, this engagement was not used to generate inter-rater reliability scores or to assess coding agreement. Instead, the purpose was to support reflexive dialogue, deepen interpretive consideration, and enhance analytic transparency, consistent with the principles of reflexive thematic analysis. Theme development was therefore shaped by ongoing reflection, theoretical engagement, and iterative refinement rather than consensus-based coding or reliability metrics.

Additionally, the use of observational field notes provided an important source of triangulation, enabling the comparison of learners’ self-reported accounts with naturally occurring interactions in classroom settings (Noble & Heale, 2019). The combined use of coding, reflexive memo writing, peer debriefing, and triangulation procedures supported deeper interpretive engagement and contributed to the development of a rich, nuanced analysis.

To enhance trustworthiness, several credibility strategies were used. Although formal member checking was not conducted, learners were occasionally asked during interviews to clarify or expand on emerging interpretations, providing informal validation. An audit trail was maintained through reflexive memos and documented analytic decisions, and discrepant cases were examined and incorporated to avoid overly uniform accounts and strengthen the credibility of the finding.

3. Results

The qualitative analysis identified four themes: the impact of peer perceptions, navigating identity, empowerment through self-care practices, and the role of the educational environment and support. These themes are presented below with illustrative participant excerpts and reflect patterned meanings across interviews and classroom observations.

3.1. Impact of Peer Perceptions

One of the most significant findings was the profound impact of negative peer perceptions on the identity of learners with disabilities. Participants reported experiencing various forms of stigmatization and exclusion, which contributed to feelings of isolation and self-doubt. For instance, several learners recounted instances where they were mocked or ignored by their peers, leading to a diminished sense of self-worth. Learner A captured this experience succinctly, “Sometimes the other kids look at me like I don’t belong here. When they whisper or laugh, it makes me feel like something is wrong with me”. Collectively, these accounts illustrate how everyday peer interactions operate as normalising judgements that shape learners’ self-perceptions over time, rather than as isolated incidents of teasing or exclusion. The theme therefore captures a patterned process through which repeated peer responses become internalised and contribute to persistent identity vulnerability. This study emphasises that when learners with disabilities are forced to conceal their identities, it prevents stigma-reducing interactions and the recognition of disability perspectives (Forber-Pratt, 2019). Similarly, Dirth and Branscombe (2018) discuss how disability identity has evolved over time, noting that historically, people with disabilities were often marginalised and viewed as deviants. This historical context is crucial for understanding the contemporary challenges faced by learners with disabilities. Recent scholarship further demonstrates that stigma diminishes the self-efficacy and self-concept of learners with disabilities by limiting their opportunities for meaningful social participation, fostering internalised shame, and reinforcing negative self-perceptions (Chatzitheochari & Butler-Rees, 2023; Falk & Sansour, 2024; Cui, 2025).

3.2. Navigating Identity

Despite the challenges posed by negative peer perceptions, many learners demonstrated remarkable resilience in navigating their identities. Participants described various strategies they employed to cope with stigmatization and assert their identities. These strategies included seeking support from trusted friends and family members, engaging in self-advocacy, and participating in disability support groups. Through these efforts, learners were able to develop a stronger sense of self and a more positive identity, with one learner noting, “I remind myself that I am capable” (Learner B), illustrating the internal affirmations that supported their developing confidence. Analytically, these strategies were understood as active forms of identity negotiation, through which learners selectively responded to stigma by reframing how disability featured in their sense of self. The theme captures not a fixed identity position, but an ongoing process of adjustment shaped by social context and relational support.

3.3. Self-Care Practices as Pathways to Learner Empowerment

The concept of “care of the self,” as articulated by Michel Foucault, emerged as a crucial framework for understanding the empowerment of learners with disabilities. Participants who engaged in self-care practices reported higher levels of self-awareness and confidence, as Learner D attests “Setting goals helps me believe in myself.”—Learner D. These practices included mindfulness exercises, journaling, and setting personal goals. These practices were analytically interpreted as forms of “care of the self” through which learners cultivated agency within constraining school contexts. Rather than functioning as coping techniques alone, self-care operated as a means of re-authoring identity by countering deficit-based peer discourse with self-directed meaning-making. For learners with disabilities, this means fostering a sense of agency and self-worth despite societal biases and institutional barriers. By engaging in self-care practices, such as mindfulness, journaling, and seeking supportive communities, learners with disabilities can develop resilience and a stronger sense of self (Brown & Leigh, 2020). “I try not to listen when people say things about my disability, and I talk to my best friend when it gets too much,” says Learner E in School B). Analytically, these accounts were grouped into a single theme because they reflect a shared identity-level function: the deliberate cultivation of agency and self-understanding in response to institutional and peer-based pressures, rather than merely individual techniques for stress reduction. Learners who prioritised their well-being were able to reinterpret negative perceptions and turn them into opportunities for personal growth and development. Having said that, a developmental distinction also emerged in how learners engaged in self-care practices. Younger participants (12–14) tended to rely on guided or teacher-supported strategies, such as simple breathing exercises or structured reflection, whereas older adolescents (16–18) described more autonomous approaches, including independent journaling, personal goal-setting, and assertive self-advocacy.

Several learners linked specific self-care practices to observable changes in their behaviour and confidence. For example, one learner explained that journaling helped them “calm down and go back to class instead of walking out” (Learner H), while another described how goal-setting “made me speak to the teacher myself when I needed help” (Learner D). These accounts indicate increased participation, self-advocacy, and help-seeking associated with the use of self-care strategies. Learners also distinguished between self-initiated practices (e.g., breathing exercises, personal reflection) and teacher-supported activities (e.g., brief guided reflection). No school had a formal self-care programme; instead, learners combined their own strategies with occasional informal support from teachers.

3.4. Educational Environment and Support

The findings also emphasise how important a supportive learning environment is for helping learners with disabilities establish their identities. To create positive school experiences, participants stressed the importance of inclusive policies and teachers who are empathetic towards learners with disabilities. Full-service schools that established self-care initiatives such as goal setting, learner engagement in arts and promoted positive peer relationships were effective in supporting the well-being of learners with disabilities. This emphasises how important it is for full-service schools to challenge existing power structures and embrace inclusive approaches, as reflected by one participant who shared, “I feel included when teachers support me without treating me differently” (Learner C). From an analytic perspective, supportive school practices functioned as contextual resources that disrupted the effects of peer surveillance and stigma. This theme therefore reflects how institutional environments can either intensify or buffer identity threats, shaping the conditions within which agency and self-care become possible.

Supportive school climate was inferred from learners’ accounts and observation notes describing consistent teacher encouragement, positive peer norms, and opportunities for participation in arts or sport. Learners in these contexts reported feeling noticed, assisted discreetly, and included by peers, suggesting that these everyday practices and participation structures functioned as indicators of a more supportive environment (refer to Table 2—theme 4 and Table 3—school climate).

Table 2. Illustrative Participant Quotations Supporting the Thematic Findings.

Theme	Extended Quotations (Not Used in Narrative Text)
Theme 1: Impact of Peer Perceptions	“When other learners stare at me or avoid sitting next to me, it makes me feel like I am different in a bad way.”—Learner G “People judge me before they even know me because of my disability.”—Learner F
Theme 2: Navigating Identity	“When people say things about my disability, I try not to listen. I talk to my best friend when it gets too much because she understands me.”—Learner E “Writing in my journal helps me calm down; it reminds me that I’m more than what other people think.”—Learner H
Theme 3: Empowerment through Self-Care Practices	“Mindfulness helps me stay calm when I feel stressed about what others think. It makes me feel more in control.”—Learner C “When I set goals with my teacher, it helps me see that I can do things even if they feel difficult at first.”—Learner E
Theme 4: Educational Environment and Support	“It helps when teachers support me without making it obvious. Then I don’t feel like I’m being watched all the time.”—Learner G “Joining music and sport activities makes me feel like I’m part of something and not just different.”—Learner F

Table 3. Variations in Learner Experiences Across Participant Characteristics.

Aspect of Variation	Description	Illustrative Quotations
Disability Visibility	Learners with visible disabilities reported more overt scrutiny; those with less visible disabilities described disbelief or minimisation.	“Because you can see my disability, some kids stare before they talk to me.”—Learner G “People think I’m lying because they can’t see what I struggle with.”—Learner H
Age/Grade	Older learners described more developed identity-management strategies, whereas younger participants relied more on peer reassurance.	“Now that I’m older, I’ve learned how to speak up for myself.”—Learner J “I only feel better when my friend tells me it’s okay.”—Learner E
Gender	Boys more often reported direct teasing; girls noted subtle social exclusion.	“The boys in my class joke about my disability more than the girls.”—Learner F “Sometimes the girls leave me out quietly.”—Learner L
School Climate	Supportive school environments buffered negative peer interactions; learners felt more protected.	“At this school, teachers check on me in a nice way, so I don’t feel alone.”—Learner C “My old school didn’t really care what we were going through.”—Learner D
Counterexamples	A minority of learners experienced categorisation as helpful when it led to meaningful support.	“Being put on the support list helped me because the SBST teacher explained things better.”—Learner B “When they referred me for support, I felt like someone finally understood.”—Learner K

Although the four themes reflected dominant patterns, several borderline cases added complexity to the analysis. In Theme 1, a few learners described mixed peer experiences where classmates were both supportive and exclusionary. Under Theme 2, some learners reported that disability was not central to their identity, contrasting with the majority who experienced identity struggle. In Theme 3, not all learners found self-care consistently empowering; a few expressed uncertainties about its effectiveness. For Theme 4, a small number viewed certain monitoring practices as helpful rather than restrictive. These borderline accounts demonstrate that learners’ experiences were not uniform, and that identity formation was shaped by varied and sometimes contradictory interactions within school contexts.

Several learners linked specific self-care practices to observable changes in their behaviour and confidence. For example, one learner explained that journaling helped them “calm down and go back to class instead of walking out” (Learner H), while another described how goal-setting “made me speak to the teacher myself when I needed help” (Learner D). These accounts indicate increased participation, self-advocacy, and help-seeking associated with the use of self-care strategies. Learners’ experiences also varied by personal and school-level factors. Those with visible disabilities reported more overt scrutiny, whereas learners with less visible disabilities more often described disbelief or minimisation. Older learners expressed more developed identity-management strategies than younger participants, and minor gender differences appeared, with boys reporting more direct teasing and girls noting subtle exclusion. School climate further shaped experiences, as supportive environments appeared to buffer negative interactions. A few learners also described categorisation as helpful when it facilitated access to support from trusted teachers or the SBST.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the identity struggles and empowerment of learners with disabilities within educational settings. By applying Michel Foucault’s concept of “care of the self,” this research highlights the complex interplay between peer perceptions, identity formation, and self-care practices. These findings must also be understood within South Africa’s wider policy ecology, where the implementation gaps of Education White Paper 6, the procedural demands of the Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) policy, language-in-education policies, and persistent resource inequalities shape how learners encounter support and surveillance in full-service schools. Intersectional factors, including race, language, poverty, and rural or under-resourced schooling contexts, further condition how biopower is experienced and influence the feasibility of recommended practices. Recognising these systemic constraints highlights that identity-affirming and relational supports must operate alongside broader structural reforms to realise genuinely inclusive schooling.

4.1. Interpreting the Impact of Peer Perceptions

The findings of this study extend the existing literature by illustrating how peer perceptions operate not only as social influences but as subtle mechanisms of disciplinary power within full-service schools. The significance of tackling stigmatisation in full-service schools is affirmed by the influence that negative peer judgements have on the identities of learners with disabilities. The participants’ reported emotions of isolation and insecurity align with earlier studies that emphasise the detrimental effects of stigmatisation on the self-esteem of learners with disabilities (See Section 1.2.1). From a Foucauldian perspective, these peer interactions can be understood as mechanisms of disciplinary power, where subtle judgments, comments, and glances act as forms of social surveillance that regulate how learners perceive themselves and behave within the school environment. In this sense, negative utterances, and perceptions function as normalising judgements, prompting learners to measure themselves against dominant notions of what constitutes the “normal” learner, which can trigger identity crises and make schooling experiences even more challenging. This dynamic was echoed directly by one learner who explained, “When my classmates whisper and look at me during group work, it makes me feel like I’m being judged, like they expect me to fail.”—Learner E. These peer-judging moments heighten learners’ vigilance over their behaviour while simultaneously amplifying feelings of inferiority, thereby contributing to the internalisation of deficit-based identities. The self-esteem and academic achievement of learners with visible disabilities can thus be highly impacted by negative peer attitudes, which often take the form of bullying, exclusion, or subtle discrimination (Wüthrich et al., 2023).

Such experiences may lead to internalised ableism, a process aligned with Foucault’s notion of subjectivation, whereby individuals begin to absorb and reproduce the negative discourses directed at them (Vaccaro et al., 2020). This internalisation results in a decreased sense of self-worth and reluctance to participate fully in educational activities. Moreover, the impact of peer perceptions is not uniform; it varies depending on the type and visibility of disability, shaping how surveillance, judgement, and conformity pressures are experienced. Learners with visible disabilities might face overt forms of discrimination, while those with invisible disabilities may struggle with being misunderstood or not believed, illustrating how disciplinary power operates differently across bodies and contexts. This distinction between visible and invisible disabilities was clearly reflected in learner H’s utterances, pointing out, “My friend in a wheelchair gets stared at or treated like she’s helpless, but because my disability isn’t visible, people think I’m lying when I say I’m struggling. It feels like no matter what, you get judged” (Learner H). This example illustrates how different bodies become the sites of different forms of disciplinary power—where learners with visible disabilities face overt stigmatisation, while those with invisible disabilities contend with disbelief and minimisation of their struggles. Both experiences reveal how normalising judgements shape learners’ sense of legitimacy, belonging, and self-worth within full-service school contexts.

Building on these insights into peer-driven pressures, the findings also highlight how learners actively navigate and respond to these identity threats.

4.2. Resilience and Identity Navigation

Despite the challenges posed by negative peer perceptions, the resilience demonstrated by some learners was impressive. The adaptive abilities of learners with disabilities were evident in the way they used tactics to navigate their identities, such as asking for help and practising self-advocacy. These findings resonate with Foucault’s notion of “care of the self,” which emphasises the importance of self-awareness, resilience, and self-care in fostering a positive identity. By actively engaging in self-care practices, learners with disabilities were able to transform negative perceptions into opportunities for growth and development (Westerink, 2020). These patterns were strongly reflected in learners’ own narratives. For instance, several participants described drawing on self-advocacy to counteract identity threats. As one learner explained, “I started telling teachers what I actually need instead of keeping quiet. It feels good to speak up for myself because then people stop assuming things about me” (Learner J). Likewise, peer relationships emerged as powerful protective resources, with one participant noting, “My friend always reminds me that I’m not the problem… she helps me calm down and focus on what I can do” (Learner K). Engagement in expressive or recreational activities further provided opportunities for positive identity construction, as another learner reflected, “When I’m in the arts club, I feel like I can express who I am and people value what I bring” (Learner L).

Resilience in this context is not just about enduring adversity but actively engaging in practices that promote self-affirmation and empowerment. For example, some learners belonged and actively participated in music groups, cultural activities, and various sporting codes, which helped counteract the negative effects of how they were perceived by some of their peers. Learners’ involvement in these activities helped them to share experiences, gain emotional support, and learn new survival skills. Moreover, the study found that learners who practiced self-advocacy were more likely to seek accommodations and support from teachers and other staff members. This proactive approach not only improved their educational experiences but also contributed to a stronger sense of agency and self-efficacy.

Beyond resilience, the role of self-care became increasingly important as learners sought constructive strategies for empowerment.

4.3. Empowerment Through Self-Care Practices

One important aspect of this study is the significance that self-care routines have in empowering learners with disabilities. Learners who ensured their well-being through goal setting, mindfulness exercises and group participation were confirmed to have higher levels reported of self-awareness, confidence, and self-esteem. This aligns with Foucault’s theory, which advocates for the cultivation of ‘care of the self’ as a means of resisting oppressive power dynamics (White, 2014). Juan et al. (2020); Shogren and Singh (2022); Alharaan (2025) and Y. Lee et al. (2025) contend that engaging in self-care practices encourages learners with disabilities to critically examine and challenge the discriminatory norms and practices that they encounter, transforming their experiences into opportunities for personal growth and empowerment. Ultimately, self-care helps learners with disabilities to assert their identities on their own terms, rather than being defined by their disabilities or the prejudices of others (Wehmeyer, 2023). This notion is further asserted by one learner in School C, “Writing in my journal helps me calm down. It’s like I can tell myself that I’m more than what other people think”. However, while self-care offers a pathway toward empowerment, it unfolds within an environment shaped by powerful institutional forces. Biopower (exercised by teachers and other learners), defined by Foucault as a type of control exercised by contemporary states through a variety of mechanisms like assessment, surveillance, and disciplinary actions within schools (Peters & Besley, 2019), is at work concurrently with learners’ efforts to comprehend and enhance their self-esteem and perception through self-care. As a result, the interplay between biopower and self-care creates a complex environment for learners with disabilities as they navigate their identity crisis. On one hand, biopower imposes external controls and expectations through mechanisms like assessments and disciplinary actions, which can lead to feelings of surveillance and constraint. As an example, a learner in school D had this to say, “It feels like teachers are always watching me more than others because of my disability. Sometimes it makes me scared to try, even when I know I can do it” (Learner, School D).

The findings suggest that self-care practices can serve as a powerful tool for learners with disabilities to reclaim their identities and assert themselves within educational institutions. ‘Care of the self’, enable learners with disabilities to focus on their strengths and achievements rather than their limitations. For instance, mindfulness exercises helped learners with disabilities to manage stress and anxiety, while diarising their everyday experiences provided an outlet for expressing emotions and reflecting on personal growth. Goal setting, on the other hand, helped learners set realistic and achievable targets, with the help of their teachers to foster a sense of accomplishment and motivation. However, the study also acknowledged the duality of ‘care of the self’ within the context of biopower.

Understanding empowerment requires situating these self-care practices within the broader institutional environment marked by biopower. While self-care practices empower learners with disabilities to resist and challenge oppressive norms, they simultaneously remain subjects of biopower, which seek to regulate and categorise them within the educational system. This is due to the fact that learners with disabilities remain under school rules and regulations to which they should conform. This duality creates a complex dynamic where self-care becomes a form of resistance against the normalising and disciplinary mechanisms of biopower. By recognising and navigating this tension, learners with disabilities can use self-care to enhance their self-esteem and also to challenge and resist the constraints imposed by biopower, thereby striving for a more empowered and autonomous existence.

Taken together, these findings show a dynamic interplay in which institutional pressures, peer norms, and personal agency converge to shape how disability identity is formed in full-service schools.

4.4. Limitations

The study acknowledges several limitations, the first being the relatively small sample size, which restricts the breadth of perspectives that could be captured and may limit the transferability of the findings to other full-service school contexts. In line with qualitative research principles, the study aims to generate thick, context-specific descriptions rather than statistical generalisations, enabling readers to consider the extent to which the findings may be transferable to other full-service school settings with comparable features. Additionally, because the study was conducted within a single district, the experiences of learners from other geographic or socio-economic contexts may not be fully represented.

A further limitation relates to the potential for researcher bias inherent in qualitative research, particularly during data interpretation and thematic analysis. Although efforts were made to minimise this risk, such as employing multiple data sources, maintaining detailed audit trails, and involving a second researcher to independently code a subset of the data, some degree of subjectivity remains unavoidable. Moreover, the reliance on self-reported experiences could introduce recall or social desirability bias, as learners might have under—or over-reported certain experiences based on comfort levels or perceived expectations. This limitation was mitigated by incorporating additional observational data (field notes) and by using neutral questioning to minimise recall distortions. However, observational data can also introduce limitations, as the presence of the researcher may influence learner or teacher behaviour (observer effect), and classroom observations capture only a limited snapshot of interactions that may not fully reflect variation across different times or contexts. Although teacher reports might have offered additional triangulation to reduce potential recall or social desirability bias, they were not collected in this study, which intentionally centred the voices and lived experiences of the learners themselves. Future studies could incorporate teacher perspectives to enrich the contextual understanding of learners’ identity development.

Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the identity struggles and empowerment processes of learners with disabilities, offering a foundation for further research with larger, more diverse samples.

5. Implications for Educational Practice and Policy and Recommendations

The findings of this study highlight several important implications for educational practice and policy, particularly in relation to how full-service schools can better support the identity development and wellbeing of learners with disabilities. The strong influence of peer perceptions on learners’ self-esteem and identity underscores the urgent need for schools to cultivate an inclusive culture that actively challenges stigmatisation and promotes social acceptance. Teachers and school leaders should be equipped with the skills and pedagogical strategies to identify subtle forms of exclusion, to foster empathy among learners, and to sustain positive peer interactions. This is especially critical given that negative peer judgements were shown to operate as a form of disciplinary power that shapes how learners with disabilities perceive their own value within the school environment.

Creating more supportive learning environments also requires schools to embed practices that strengthen learners’ resilience and self-awareness. The study’s findings reveal the empowering potential of self-care routines, which helped learners navigate identity threats and reconstruct positive self-understandings. Therefore, teachers and policymakers should consider integrating structured self-care practices into the curriculum to provide learners with tangible tools for emotional regulation, stress management, and self-affirmation. Such practices may include mindful breathing and grounding exercises, reflective journaling and expressive writing, structured goal-setting activities, strengths-based reflection tasks, and social emotional learning (SEL) routines that promote empathy and self-advocacy. These activities align closely with Foucault’s notion of ‘care of the self’, as they enable learners to engage in reflective practices that foster agency and self-formation within environments that may otherwise exert normalising pressures.

The findings further indicate that full-service schools should adopt policies that meaningfully disrupt the subtle forms of biopower learners encounter, such as excessive surveillance, rigid behavioural expectations, and categorisation processes that reinforce feelings of difference. School wide initiatives, such as anti-bullying campaigns, peer mentoring programmes, inclusive extracurricular options, and arts-based participation, can contribute to building a more accepting and empowering school culture. These initiatives should be supported by ongoing teacher professional development that centres disability awareness, inclusive pedagogies, and relational approaches to behaviour support. Such training can strengthen educators’ confidence and competence in fostering inclusive learning environments and responding sensitively to the identity struggles that learners with disabilities may face.

To translate these implications into practice, the following recommendations are proposed:

• Integrate structured self-care activities into Life Orientation and daily routines to promote resilience, emotional regulation, and positive identity formation among learners with disabilities.
• Strengthen whole-school peer-inclusion strategies, such as buddy systems, peer mentoring, and cooperative learning structures, to reduce stigmatisation and foster authentic social belonging.
• Implement proactive anti-bullying and disability-awareness campaigns that address negative peer perceptions and challenge normalised attitudes that marginalise learners with disabilities.
• Provide continuous teacher professional development on inclusive pedagogies, self-care facilitation, disability studies, and socio-emotional support strategies for learners with disabilities.
• Create nurturing school environments that encourage learner voice and agency, enabling learners with disabilities to participate meaningfully in decisions related to their support and overall school experiences.

The study’s emphasis on self-advocacy and self-care aligns with work in assistive technologies and GenAI-supported metacognition, which use structured goal-setting, reflection prompts, and emotion-regulation supports (O’Reilly & White, 2023; Dyjur, 2025; Zhu et al., 2026) Briefly noting this connection strengthens the recommendation for schools to integrate disability perspectives within SEL and self-determination curricula. These approaches are also consistent with Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which promotes flexible, accessible pedagogies and teacher professional development, key considerations for practical implementation.

These recommendations align with principles of Universal Design for Learning, which emphasise proactive curriculum design that recognises learner diversity, provides multiple means of engagement, and embeds identity-affirming practices throughout teaching and learning (Tracy-Bronson & Heath, 2025). Positioning disability perspectives within UDL-oriented curriculum structures strengthens equitable participation beyond individual accommodations and reinforces inclusion as a systemic, whole-school responsibility rather than an add-on intervention.

Self-care and self-advocacy can support learners’ agency, but they cannot replace the need for systemic change. These practices work best alongside broader reforms that address structural barriers, such as consistent policy implementation, anti-ableist school cultures, and fair assessment practices. In this way, self-care enhances rather than substitutes the institutional responsibilities required for truly inclusive education.

6. Conclusions

This study offers a nuanced understanding of how learners with disabilities construct and negotiate their identities within full-service school environments shaped by peer perceptions and institutional power dynamics. By drawing on Foucault’s notion of ‘care of the self’, the study illustrates that identity formation is neither fixed nor passive; rather, it is an ongoing process in which learners navigate externally imposed norms while cultivating personal strategies for resilience and self-affirmation. The findings highlight the potential for full-service schools to serve not only as sites of learning but also as spaces where learners actively reshape the meanings attached to disability through reflective, empowering practices.

At a broader level, this research contributes to theoretical and practical conversations on inclusive education by highlighting how everyday interactions, among peers, within classrooms, and across school systems, shape the lived experiences of disability. These insights reaffirm the need for educational environments that recognise learners with disabilities as capable agents in their own identity development rather than as passive recipients of support. The interplay between biopower and self-care revealed in this study provides a valuable lens for understanding the subtle tensions that influence learners’ sense of belonging and self-worth.

While the study offers important contributions, it also opens new avenues for inquiry. Future research could explore how self-care practices develop across different school contexts, how digital or community-based support structures shape identity formation, and how teachers interpret and enact care-oriented pedagogies in diverse learning environments. In addition, longitudinal studies may provide deeper insights into how identity evolves over time as learners encounter shifting expectations, relationships, and institutional dynamics.

Ultimately, this study emphasises the transformative possibility of educational spaces that nurture agency, dignity, and self-understanding. By foregrounding the voices and experiences of learners with disabilities, it encourages continued efforts to design school environments where all learners are supported in developing confident, empowered identities.