Journal of Intelligence

17 pages, 989 KB

Open AccessArticle

Objective Assessment of Cognition for Detecting Subjective Cognitive Decline Is More Accurate than Subjective Estimations: The Role of Trait Affect

by Nikoleta Frantzi, Despina Moraitou, Eudokia Emmanouilidou, Eleni Poptsi, Emmanouil Tsardoulias, Andreas L. Symeonidis, Georgia Papantoniou, Maria Sofologi, Elvira Masoura, Glykeria Tsentidou, Ioanna-Giannoula Katsouri and Magda Tsolaki

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090118 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

The early identification of cognitive decline is crucial for well-timed intervention and diagnosis, particularly in the context of preclinical Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In this study, we investigated the complex interplay between trait affect, objective cognitive performance, and subjective memory estimations in a sample [...] Read more.

The early identification of cognitive decline is crucial for well-timed intervention and diagnosis, particularly in the context of preclinical Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In this study, we investigated the complex interplay between trait affect, objective cognitive performance, and subjective memory estimations in a sample of 105 older adults. Using path analysis, we aimed to determine whether trait affect and objective cognitive control abilities predict individuals’ subjective perceptions of their own memory abilities. The results revealed that both positive and negative trait affect significantly predicted subjective memory estimations, while objective cognitive control performance did not significantly predict these estimations. These findings highlight a crucial dissociation between objective and subjective cognitive measures. Therefore, the present results underscore the critical importance of complementing self-reported cognitive estimations, which can be biased by stable emotional dispositions, with objective cognitive tools like the R4Alz-pc (preclinical) index. This approach enables a more accurate evaluation of cognitive health in advancing age, especially for the early detection of subtle dysfunction in preclinical AD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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23 pages, 1212 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Is L2 Learners’ Metaphorical Competence Essentially Cognitive, Linguistic, or Personal?—A Meta-Analysis

by Zhaojuan Chen, Lu Guan and Xiaoyong Zhou

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090117 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Metaphorical competence—the capacity to comprehend and produce metaphors in a second language (L2)—is essential for nuanced, accurate, and contextually appropriate English usage. Synthesizing 40 independent studies (N = 15,786), this meta-analysis quantified the relative contributions of cognitive, linguistic, and personal factors to L2 [...] Read more.

Metaphorical competence—the capacity to comprehend and produce metaphors in a second language (L2)—is essential for nuanced, accurate, and contextually appropriate English usage. Synthesizing 40 independent studies (N = 15,786), this meta-analysis quantified the relative contributions of cognitive, linguistic, and personal factors to L2 metaphorical competence. Effect sizes were derived from correlation coefficients and aggregated under random-effects models to account for between-study heterogeneity. Linguistic factors emerged as the dominant predictor (r = 0.421, 95% CI [0.34, 0.50]), primarily driven by vocabulary breadth/depth and reading proficiency. Cognitive factors exerted a moderate influence (r = 0.232, 95% CI [0.17, 0.30]), whereas personal variables such as gender yielded only a small effect (r = 0.216, 95% CI [0.15, 0.28]). Moderator analyses further revealed that L1 conceptual knowledge constitutes the strongest single predictor of L2 metaphor skills and highlighted distinct associations between receptive and productive metaphor abilities with linguistic versus cognitive aptitudes. The findings collectively point to lexico-semantic and literacy development as the main levers for boosting L2 metaphorical competence, with cognitive aptitudes and personal factors acting as secondary, yet important, modulators. Insight from this meta-analysis offers a robust foundation for evidence-based decisions in curriculum design, materials selection, and targeted pedagogical interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

18 pages, 2299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Emotion Perception Ability Using AI-Generated Stimuli: Development and Validation of the PAGE Test

by Ben Weidmann and Yixian Xu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090116 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

We present a new measure of emotion perception called PAGE (Perceiving AI Generated Emotions). The test includes 20 emotions, expressed by ethnically diverse faces, spanning a wide range of ages. We created stimuli with generative AI, illustrating a method to build customizable assessments [...] Read more.

We present a new measure of emotion perception called PAGE (Perceiving AI Generated Emotions). The test includes 20 emotions, expressed by ethnically diverse faces, spanning a wide range of ages. We created stimuli with generative AI, illustrating a method to build customizable assessments of emotional intelligence at relatively low cost. Study 1 describes the validation of the image set and test construction. Study 2 reports the psychometric properties of the test, including convergent validity and relatively strong reliability. Study 3 explores predictive validity using a lab experiment in which we causally identify the contributions managers make to teams. PAGE scores predict managers’ causal contributions to group success, a finding which is robust to controlling for personality and demographic characteristics. We discuss the potential of generative AI to automate development of non-cognitive skill assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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33 pages, 2437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Individual Differences in Implicit Perceptual-Motor Learning: A Parallel Assessments Approach

by Y. Catherine Han, Kelsey R. Thompson and Paul J. Reber

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090115 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Implicit learning describes learning from experience that is not available to conscious awareness. The question of whether some individuals are better implicit learners than others has suggested and may contribute to difference in performance among experts. Across four experiments, adult participants completed the [...] Read more.

Implicit learning describes learning from experience that is not available to conscious awareness. The question of whether some individuals are better implicit learners than others has suggested and may contribute to difference in performance among experts. Across four experiments, adult participants completed the Serial Interception Sequence Learning (SISL) task across multiple parallel learning assessment forms. Previously, SISL sequence-specific performance has been shown to resist explicit knowledge influence, allowing for repeated reassessments of implicit learning with novel statistical structure. Our findings indicate that group-level sequence-specific performance occurred robustly in each reassessment; however, participants who exhibited more sequence-specific performance on one assessment did not exhibit better performance on parallel assessments, indicating no rank-order stability in learning. In all four experiments, with two to twelve reassessments of learning, no participants exhibited consistently better sequence learning rates than the other participants, indicating no evidence for a better ability in implicit learning. Measurements of other cognitive constructs, such as processing speed collected in parallel, exhibited robust individual differences. In Experiment 4, a general battery of cognitive measurements showed typical individual differences in measures of working memory, processing speed, and personality, but none correlated with implicit learning ability. We hypothesize that implicit learning arises from a general process of neuroplasticity reorganizing functions during practice and that our findings suggest that this process occurs at a basically similar rate across all people. Everybody learns from practice implicitly, but results suggest that the learning rate does not vary substantially across this sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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20 pages, 2202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Computerized Adaptive Assessment and Learning System for Mathematical Ability Based on Cognitive Diagnosis

by Yi Zhang, Liping Zhang, Heyang Zhang and Xiaopeng Wu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090114 - 2 Sep 2025

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Abstract

With the rapid evolution of technology and the continuous deepening of digital transformation in education, personalized and adaptive learning have emerged as inevitable trends in the educational landscape. This study focuses on a Computerized Adaptive Learning System Based on Cognitive Diagnosis (CAL-CDS)—an integrated [...] Read more.

With the rapid evolution of technology and the continuous deepening of digital transformation in education, personalized and adaptive learning have emerged as inevitable trends in the educational landscape. This study focuses on a Computerized Adaptive Learning System Based on Cognitive Diagnosis (CAL-CDS)—an integrated platform that incorporates multiple technologies for assessment and learning. The study is organized around two dimensions: (1) constructing a foundational cognitive diagnostic assessment framework, and (2) investigating the operational mechanisms of the cognitive diagnosis-based computerized adaptive system. It comprehensively incorporates core components including cognitive modeling, Q-matrix generation, and diagnostic test development. On this basis, this study dissects the system’s operational logic from four aspects: the adaptive testing system, diagnostic system, recommendation system, and empirical case studies. This study effectively addresses two core questions: how to construct a cognitive diagnostic assessment framework that alignes with China’s mathematics knowledge structure, and how to facilitate personalized student learning via cognitive diagnosis. Overall, this study offers a systematic solution for developing mathematics-specific cognitive diagnosis-driven adaptive learning systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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16 pages, 2121 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Nature and Measure of Critical Thinking: The PACIER Framework and Assessment

by Hyo Jeong Shin, Seewoo Li, Ji Hoon Ryoo, Alina von Davier, Todd Lubart and Salah Khalil

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090113 - 2 Sep 2025

Viewed by 531

Abstract

Based on the PACIER model of critical thinking, involving six facets for critical thinking (Problem solving, Analysis, Creative thinking, Interpretation, Evaluation, Reasoning), the empirical results of a new computer-based assessment (PACIER Critical Thinking Assessment) are presented. The data is based on a study [...] Read more.

Based on the PACIER model of critical thinking, involving six facets for critical thinking (Problem solving, Analysis, Creative thinking, Interpretation, Evaluation, Reasoning), the empirical results of a new computer-based assessment (PACIER Critical Thinking Assessment) are presented. The data is based on a study of 700 middle school 11-year-old students in the United Arab Emirates, who were tested five times during a school year. In the assessment framework, test items are described, and psychometric results indicate that the PACIER Critical Thinking Assessment exhibits acceptable reliability and validity. Its use for measuring progress in educational programs to foster critical thinking is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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16 pages, 901 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fostering Students’ Sense of School Belonging: Emotional Intelligence and Socio-Ecological Perspectives

by Hatice Turan Bora and Sadegül Akbaba Altun

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090112 - 2 Sep 2025

Viewed by 337

Abstract

A strong sense of school belonging is essential for students’ academic achievement, emotional well-being, and overall development. This study explores the role of emotional intelligence and the social environment in shaping students’ sense of belonging. Adopting a basic qualitative approach, this study analyzes [...] Read more.

A strong sense of school belonging is essential for students’ academic achievement, emotional well-being, and overall development. This study explores the role of emotional intelligence and the social environment in shaping students’ sense of belonging. Adopting a basic qualitative approach, this study analyzes teachers’ perspectives on the contributions of students, teachers, parents, counselors, school principals, and the wider society. Qualitative data which were collected through interviews with 49 teachers (37 female, 12 male; years of experience mean is 12) were analyzed through content analysis to identify the main themes. The findings suggest that students’ sense of belonging improves when they actively participate in school life and are aware of the importance of school. Furthermore, students’ sense of belonging improves when teachers offer academic and emotional support, parents engage actively, counselors foster well-being, and school principals provide strong leadership and relationship management. In addition, increased social involvement enhances student belonging. This study offers valuable insights for educators and policymakers in fostering supportive school environments. It highlights the emotional and social processes underlying school belonging and discusses their implications for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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17 pages, 1405 KB

Open AccessArticle

Creative and Critical Thinking and Modelling: Confluences and Implications for Science Teaching

by Marta Gómiz-Aragón, María del Mar Aragón-Méndez, Rui Marques Vieira, Celina Tenreiro-Vieira and José María Oliva

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090111 - 31 Aug 2025

Viewed by 820

Abstract

Contemporary society demands the development of creative critical thinking (CCT) as a fundamental objective in science education. However, there appears to be a dissonance between this recognised need and its actual implementation in educational practices. This study explores the potential of modelling practices [...] Read more.

Contemporary society demands the development of creative critical thinking (CCT) as a fundamental objective in science education. However, there appears to be a dissonance between this recognised need and its actual implementation in educational practices. This study explores the potential of modelling practices to intentionally, explicitly, and reflectively integrate the development of CCT in educational settings. To examine this possibility while laying the foundations for future research, the theoretical frameworks of CCT and modelling are synthesised, and their possible points of convergence are analysed in order to test the proposed hypothesis. Two elements that may strengthen their synergy are identified: first, the resources for modelling, such as analogies, which activate analytical, evaluative, creative, and argumentative skills, thereby fostering critical dispositions and a deeper understanding of the nature of science. Second, argumentation, closely connected with communication and information management, is considered a relevant component, especially when addressing socioscientific issues. While further empirical research is needed, the analysis indicates that modelling practices could contribute to the development of CCT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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28 pages, 1340 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Proctoring on Online Intelligence Measurement: A Literature Overview and an Empirical Study

by Vsevolod Scherrer, Nicolai Petry, Moritz Breit, Julian Urban, Julian Preuß and Franzis Preckel

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090110 - 30 Aug 2025

Viewed by 380

Abstract

Remote intelligence testing has multiple advantages, but cheating is possible without proper supervision. Proctoring aims to address this shortcoming, yet prior research on its effects has primarily investigated reasoning tasks, in which cheating is generally difficult. This study provides an overview of recent [...] Read more.

Remote intelligence testing has multiple advantages, but cheating is possible without proper supervision. Proctoring aims to address this shortcoming, yet prior research on its effects has primarily investigated reasoning tasks, in which cheating is generally difficult. This study provides an overview of recent research on the effects of proctoring and on studies in intelligence test settings. Moreover, we conducted an empirical study testing the effects of webcam-based proctoring with a multidimensional intelligence test measuring reasoning, short-term memory, processing speed, and divergent thinking. The study was conducted in a low-stakes context, with participants receiving a fixed payment regardless of performance. Participants completed the test under proctored (n = 74, webcam consent), unproctored random (n = 75, webcam consent), or unproctored chosen (n = 77, no webcam consent) conditions. Scalar measurement invariance was observed for reasoning, processing speed, and divergent thinking, but not for memory. Proctoring had no significant main effect on test performance but showed a significant interaction with test type. Proctored participants outperformed the unproctored chosen group significantly in divergent thinking and scored descriptively higher in reasoning and processing speed, but slightly lower in memory. Observable cheating under proctored conditions was rare (4%), mostly involving note-taking or photographing the screen. We conclude that proctoring is crucial for easily cheatable tasks, such as memory tasks, but currently less critical for complex cognitive tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Assessment)

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23 pages, 2400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and the Big Five as Predictors of Students’ Performance in Collaborative Problem Solving

by Ana Altaras, Zorana Jolić Marjanović, Kristina Mojović Zdravković, Ksenija Krstić and Tijana Nikitović

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090109 - 29 Aug 2025

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Abstract

We examined the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and the Big Five on students’ performance in collaborative problem solving (CPS). 162 secondary-school students completed the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test and the Big Five Inventory. Divided into 54 triads (64.8% female), they then collaboratively [...] Read more.

We examined the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and the Big Five on students’ performance in collaborative problem solving (CPS). 162 secondary-school students completed the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test and the Big Five Inventory. Divided into 54 triads (64.8% female), they then collaboratively solved a complex social problem. Based on video-recordings of the CPS sessions, we assessed four CPS processes: the team’s socio-cognitive exchange, socio-emotional interaction, task management, and relationship management. The CPS product (solution) of each team was judged by two independent raters. Using structural equation modelling (1) with team-level EI abilities as predictors, we found a small indirect effect (via CPS processes) of both understanding and managing emotions on the CPS product, and a medium-size direct effect of understanding emotions on the same criterion; (2) with team-level traits as predictors, a medium-size positive effect of neuroticism on task management, a small negative effect of extraversion on relationship management, and a small positive effect of openness on the CPS product. A model including both EI and personality confirmed their independent contributions to CPS performance, with EI abilities contributing both directly and indirectly to the CPS product, and the contribution of personality narrowed down to neuroticism positively affecting task management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay of Intelligence and Non-cognitive Constructs in Predicting Achievement)

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22 pages, 1116 KB

Open AccessArticle

Achievement Goal Profiles and Academic Performance in Mathematics and Literacy: A Person-Centered Approach in Third Grade Students

by Justine Fiévé, Maxim Likhanov, Pascale Colé and Isabelle Régner

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090108 - 27 Aug 2025

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Abstract

In spite of the ever-growing body of research in achievement goal profiles and their contribution to performance, the research on young children is quite limited. This study examined achievement goal profiles related to mathematics and literacy performance among third-grade students (N = [...] Read more.

In spite of the ever-growing body of research in achievement goal profiles and their contribution to performance, the research on young children is quite limited. This study examined achievement goal profiles related to mathematics and literacy performance among third-grade students (N = 185, M = 8.73 years; 98 girls), using Latent Profile Analysis. Four distinct profiles emerged—Mastery-Oriented, Approach-Oriented, High Multiple-Goals, and Moderate Multiple-Goals—that were highly similar across math and literacy (contingency coefficient = 0.59). Schoolchildren endorsing the Approach-Oriented profile demonstrated higher achievement compared to those with High Multiple-Goals or Moderate Multiple-Goals profiles, which involved more avoidance goals and were less adaptive (with up to 8% of variance explained by profile). Gender differences were observed: girls were more likely to endorse profiles combining multiple goals, whereas boys more often endorsed mastery or approach profiles. These results highlight early inter-individual differences in motivational development, observable in both mathematics and literacy. Promoting adaptive goal profiles in early education may enhance academic engagement and help reduce emerging motivational disparities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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19 pages, 1898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Natural Categories: Effects of Interleaving Practice in Children and Young Adults

by Xiaoxiao Dong, Xiaoxiao He, Lingyu Fang, Qiang Xing and Rongxia Ren

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090107 - 25 Aug 2025

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Abstract

While interleaved learning has been shown to enhance young adults’ acquisition of confusable natural categories, its effects on children’s natural category learning remain underexplored. The present study investigated the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) on both categorization accuracy and the accuracy [...] Read more.

While interleaved learning has been shown to enhance young adults’ acquisition of confusable natural categories, its effects on children’s natural category learning remain underexplored. The present study investigated the effects of study schedule (interleaving vs. blocking) on both categorization accuracy and the accuracy of metacognitive judgments during the learning of natural rock categories, comparing children and young adults. In Experiment 1, participants studied under blocked or interleaved conditions and subsequently provided global judgments of their learning. In Experiment 2, we employed a self-paced learning paradigm that required learners to regulate their own study time. Additionally, participants made item-by-item judgments of their learning during the study phase. Across both experiments, we found that interleaved learning significantly improved categorization accuracy, with young adults benefiting more than children. Regarding metacognitive monitoring, interleaving reduced overconfidence in children but led to underconfidence in young adults, as reflected in both global and item-level judgments. These findings suggest that the benefits of interleaved learning for category performance and metacognitive monitoring vary with age, highlighting age-related differences in the effectiveness of interleaved learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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18 pages, 1981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neural Correlates of Belief-Bias Reasoning as Predictors of Critical Thinking: Evidence from an fNIRS Study

by Juanjuan Ma, Wenyu Lv and Xuezhu Ren

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090106 - 24 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This study examined the neural characteristics of belief-bias reasoning in order to reveal the neurocognitive basis of critical thinking. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy was utilized to capture the real-time brain hemodynamic activity of 74 college students while they performed a belief-bias syllogistic reasoning task. [...] Read more.

This study examined the neural characteristics of belief-bias reasoning in order to reveal the neurocognitive basis of critical thinking. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy was utilized to capture the real-time brain hemodynamic activity of 74 college students while they performed a belief-bias syllogistic reasoning task. Values of oxy-hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) and deoxy-hemoglobin (deoxy-Hb) in regions of interest were analyzed in relation to critical thinking skills assessed by established tests. The results reveal significant activation in both the opercular part of the right IFC and the left DLPFC when participants encountered situations where their prior beliefs contradicted logical validity during the completion of the belief-bias syllogistic reasoning task. Crucially, individuals with lower levels of critical thinking skills demonstrated heightened activation in the opercular part of the right IFC compared to those with higher levels of critical thinking skills. Furthermore, variations in hemodynamics, quantified by oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb concentration values (area under the activity curve as absolute value), during the execution of belief-bias reasoning tasks accounted for a substantial proportion of the variability in critical thinking skills. Additionally, the hemodynamic data to a large extent explained the connection between belief-bias reasoning and critical thinking. These results provide a neural explanation for the relationship between belief-bias reasoning and critical thinking, and advance theoretical models of critical thinking by illuminating the brain’s mechanisms engaged in unbiased reasoning and metacognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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14 pages, 998 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding How Intelligence and Academic Underachievement Relate to Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents with and Without a Migration Background

by Alicia Neumann, Ricarda Steinmayr, Marcus Roth and Tobias Altmann

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090105 - 22 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Intelligence, academic achievement and an unfavorable discrepancy between them (i.e., underachievement) have been proposed to influence students’ subjective well-being. However, previous research on these effects remains scarce and inconsistent. The present study examined the associations between said variables in a sample of 695 [...] Read more.

Intelligence, academic achievement and an unfavorable discrepancy between them (i.e., underachievement) have been proposed to influence students’ subjective well-being. However, previous research on these effects remains scarce and inconsistent. The present study examined the associations between said variables in a sample of 695 fifteen-year-old students in Germany, differentiating between those with and without a migration background. Our findings unexpectedly revealed that students with a migration background reported higher life satisfaction than those without a migration background. Intelligence was unrelated to life satisfaction, regardless of migration background. Academic achievement, measured by the grade point average, was positively associated with life satisfaction among students without a migration background but showed no such relationship in students with a migration background. Segmented regression analyses further indicated that an unfavorable discrepancy between IQ and grade point average, reflecting underachievement, was associated with lower life satisfaction among students with a migration background but not among those without. These findings partially challenge previous research and theoretical assumptions. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings for educational policy and emphasize the importance of targeted interventions to address underachievement in students with a migration background. Our findings suggest that poor academic performance can have a particular impact on well-being in this group. Accordingly, interventions aimed at reducing the achievement gap of those students should not only target cognitive and academic skills but also promote emotional support, cultural inclusion and social integration in the school environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay of Intelligence and Non-cognitive Constructs in Predicting Achievement)

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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 14 articles

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