Journal of Intelligence

26 pages, 3053 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Philosophy for Children on Children’s Cognitive Development: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

by Caiyun Wei and Lele Chen

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100130 - 13 Oct 2025

Amid the rise of the knowledge economy, accelerated informatization, and the emergence of artificial intelligence, Philosophy for Children (P4C) has been promoted as an effective educational project to enhance children’s cognitive development, especially higher-order thinking skills. However, empirical evidence regarding its efficacy remains [...] Read more.

Amid the rise of the knowledge economy, accelerated informatization, and the emergence of artificial intelligence, Philosophy for Children (P4C) has been promoted as an effective educational project to enhance children’s cognitive development, especially higher-order thinking skills. However, empirical evidence regarding its efficacy remains inconclusive. This three-level meta-analysis synthesizes 53 effect sizes derived from 33 experimental and quasi-experimental studies involving 4568 participants to assess P4C’s cognitive effects and potential moderators. The results reveal a statistically significant and moderate-to-strong overall effect (g = 0.59). Significant and robust effects were specifically observed for reasoning, critical thinking, and creativity. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses identified sample size as a significant moderator: smaller samples tended to report larger effect sizes. Additionally, cultural context and session length showed marginally significant moderating effects. Crucially, P4C’s cognitive impact remained consistent across grade levels, research designs, and publication years, demonstrating robustness and stability across diverse implementation conditions. These findings provide updated and nuanced evidence for the effectiveness of P4C, underscoring its cross-contextual robustness and specific value in fostering cognitive abilities. Implications for policymakers, educators, and future researchers aiming to implement or investigate P4C in varied educational settings are discussed. Full article

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35 pages, 839 KB

Open AccessArticle

Scientific Impact and Its Role in Scientific Reasoning

by Robert J. Sternberg, Alexandra Moravek, Tamara M. Vaz and Riley Mack Schneider

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100129 - 9 Oct 2025

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Abstract

We tested 75 participants in a selective university near the East Coast of the United States for their skills in scientific reasoning. We used scientific reasoning assessments for Generating Hypotheses, Generating Experiments, and Drawing Conclusions. To measure scientific reasoning skills, we also used [...] Read more.

We tested 75 participants in a selective university near the East Coast of the United States for their skills in scientific reasoning. We used scientific reasoning assessments for Generating Hypotheses, Generating Experiments, and Drawing Conclusions. To measure scientific reasoning skills, we also used a task involving analyzing scientific impact based on titles of published studies (which were either highly cited or scarcely cited), and another task involving creating what participants believed might be high-impact scientific studies in three subject matter areas. Participants further completed two fluid intelligence tests: Number Series and Letter Sets. They also filled in demographic information, including self-reported SAT/ACT scores and college GPA. (We cannot obtain actual grades at our university because of student-confidentiality issues.) We found that the scientific reasoning tests for Generating Hypotheses, Generating Experiments, and Drawing Conclusions clustered into a single factor, and the task for creating high-impact studies was also factored with these scientific reasoning tests. The two fluid ability tests—Number Series and Letter Sets—clustered into a distinct single factor. The task of analyzing impact seemed to be in between the other tasks, showing characteristics of not only the scientific reasoning tasks but also of the fluid intelligence tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

17 pages, 979 KB

Open AccessArticle

Informal Mathematical Thinking: Invariance of the Role of Domain-General and Domain-Specific Precursors in Spain and Chile

by Gamal Cerda, Carlos Pérez, Eugenio Chandía, Estíbaliz Aragón and José I. Navarro

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100128 - 8 Oct 2025

Viewed by 383

Abstract

This study examines how domain-general (processing speed and receptive vocabulary) and domain-specific (symbolic and non-symbolic comparison) cognitive skills contribute to early informal mathematical thinking in preschoolers. The aim was to assess the invariance of these predictive relationships across two sociocultural contexts: Chilean and [...] Read more.

This study examines how domain-general (processing speed and receptive vocabulary) and domain-specific (symbolic and non-symbolic comparison) cognitive skills contribute to early informal mathematical thinking in preschoolers. The aim was to assess the invariance of these predictive relationships across two sociocultural contexts: Chilean and Spanish samples. A total of 130 children participated, and structural equation modeling was used to estimate latent structures and test multigroup invariance. The results revealed a consistent latent structure across samples and a significant contribution of symbolic and non-symbolic comparison to early math performance, while processing speed and vocabulary showed context-specific variations. These findings indicate that although foundational mathematical competencies rely on common cognitive mechanisms, cultural and educational contexts modulate the strength of these associations. This study contributes to understanding the cognitive architecture underlying early numeracy and highlights the importance of culturally sensitive assessment and intervention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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20 pages, 1873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Comprehensive Spatial Ability and Specific Attributes Through Higher-Order LLM

by Jujia Li, Kaiwen Man, Mehdi Rajeb, Andrew Krist and Joni M. Lakin

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100127 - 5 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Spatial reasoning ability plays a critical role in predicting academic outcomes, particularly in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education. According to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of human intelligence, spatial reasoning is a general ability including various specific attributes. However, most spatial assessments [...] Read more.

Spatial reasoning ability plays a critical role in predicting academic outcomes, particularly in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education. According to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory of human intelligence, spatial reasoning is a general ability including various specific attributes. However, most spatial assessments focus on testing one specific spatial attribute or a limited set (e.g., visualization, rotation, etc.), rather than general spatial ability. To address this limitation, we created a mixed spatial test that includes mental rotation, object assembly, and isometric perception subtests to evaluate both general spatial ability and specific attributes. To understand the complex relationship between general spatial ability and mastery of specific attributes, we used a higher-order linear logistic model (HO-LLM), which is designed to simultaneously estimate high-order ability and sub-attributes. Additionally, this study compares four spatial ability classification frameworks using each to construct Q-matrices that define the relationships between test items and spatial reasoning attributes within the HO-LLM framework. Our findings indicate that HO-LLMs improve model fit and show distinct patterns of attribute mastery, highlighting which spatial attributes contribute most to general spatial ability. The results suggest that higher-order LLMs can offer a deeper and more interpretable assessment of spatial ability and support tailored training by identifying areas of strength and weakness in individual learners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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28 pages, 1093 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Differentiated Instruction on the Academic Achievement and Opinions of 3rd-Grade Students in Science Education: A Mixed-Methods Study

by Serpil Kara and Aysun Tekindur

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100126 - 1 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The purpose of the current study is to determine the effect of the differentiated instruction approach on 3rd-grade primary school students’ academic achievement (N = 45) in the “Electrical Devices and Tools” unit and to explore their opinions regarding the differentiated instruction process. [...] Read more.

The purpose of the current study is to determine the effect of the differentiated instruction approach on 3rd-grade primary school students’ academic achievement (N = 45) in the “Electrical Devices and Tools” unit and to explore their opinions regarding the differentiated instruction process. In this context, the content of the lessons prepared using student-centred approaches on students’ science achievement was examined, and students’ opinions on the differentiated instruction approach were also evaluated. The study was conducted in the spring term of the 2024–2025 school year in a major city located in the central region of Türkiye, and a mixed research design combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches was employed. In the current study, during the instructional process of the experimental group, differentiated instruction lesson plans available on the Education Information Network (EIN) portal provided by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) were used. In the control group, the process outlined by the current curriculum was followed. When the findings were evaluated, statistically significant differences were found in favour of the experimental group, in which activities were implemented based on the differentiated instruction plan, compared to the control group that received instruction within the framework of the current curriculum. In addition, students’ opinions regarding the process indicated that the implementation contributed positively to their learning. In light of the findings obtained, recommendations were made for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Personality, Emotions, and Emotional Intelligence Assessments: New Applications and Instruments)

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20 pages, 1062 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Interplay of Vocabulary, Working Memory, and Math Anxiety in Predicting Early Math Performance

by Roberto A. Ferreira, Cristina Rodríguez, Bárbara Guzmán, Felipe Sepúlveda and Christian Peake

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100125 - 29 Sep 2025

Viewed by 386

Abstract

Mathematical performance in early education is influenced by a complex interplay of cognitive and affective factors, including language skills, working memory, and anxiety. This study investigated whether working memory and math anxiety, in both explicit numerical situations (ENS) and general classroom situations (GCS), [...] Read more.

Mathematical performance in early education is influenced by a complex interplay of cognitive and affective factors, including language skills, working memory, and anxiety. This study investigated whether working memory and math anxiety, in both explicit numerical situations (ENS) and general classroom situations (GCS), mediate the relationship between general and math-specific vocabulary and math performance in a sample of 467 second-grade students in Chile. Structural equation modelling was employed to test a dual-pathway model in which both working memory and math anxiety served as mediators between vocabulary knowledge and math performance. Results indicated that both general and math-specific vocabulary positively predicted working memory and negatively predicted math anxiety in ENS. In turn, working memory and ENS significantly predicted math outcomes, whereas GCS was not a significant predictor. Indirect effects supported a dual mediation structure, with vocabulary influencing math performance through both cognitive and affective mechanisms. Math-specific vocabulary exerted a slightly stronger total effect than general vocabulary, consistent with its closer alignment to the semantic demands of mathematical tasks. These findings suggest that vocabulary supports early mathematical learning not only by enhancing cognitive processing capacity but also by reducing anxiety in task-specific contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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18 pages, 780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Discrimination of False Response from Object Reality in False Belief Test in Preschool Children

by Melis Süngü and Tevfik Alıcı

J. Intell. 2025, 13(10), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13100124 - 25 Sep 2025

Viewed by 251

Abstract

The first-order false belief (FB) test is frequently employed to assess theory of mind (ToM); however, it faces substantial criticism regarding its inadequacies. Critics argue that the responses remain binary and are influenced by the presence and location of the object. This study [...] Read more.

The first-order false belief (FB) test is frequently employed to assess theory of mind (ToM); however, it faces substantial criticism regarding its inadequacies. Critics argue that the responses remain binary and are influenced by the presence and location of the object. This study aims to address these criticisms by manipulating an object’s location through three alternative FB tasks, thereby enhancing the understanding of children’s reasoning strategies (reality, belief, or perceptual access reasoning) and offering a language skill-independent measure of ToM. This study involved 150 children aged 3–6 years who were administered standard and three alternative FB tasks along with a receptive vocabulary acquisition test. The findings revealed that children predominantly utilized reality reasoning, identifying the object’s location as the correct response. However, in a condition where the object was physically removed, the percentage of correct responses increased significantly, and the use of belief reasoning increased. While age and language skills were found to be directly correlated with FB performance, the object’s interference with belief reasoning in younger children was reduced. In light of these findings, the three alternative tasks are posited to offer a promising, more accurate measure of FB understanding, independent of the object’s presence and language skill. Full article

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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 7 articles

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