Journal of Intelligence

17 pages, 2050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clustering Analysis of Cognitive Profiles of Clinical Groups Using the CAS: An Examination of Japanese Clinical Populations

by Shinji Okazaki, Shiho Okuhata, Masumi Aoki and Hisao Maekawa

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060071 - 19 Jun 2025

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Abstract

This study examined the distribution characteristics of the standard scores on the Japanese version of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)’s Planning, Attention, Simultaneous Processing, and Successive Processing (PASS) scale by clustering the scores using the k-means method, focusing on clinical groups. In Study [...] Read more.

This study examined the distribution characteristics of the standard scores on the Japanese version of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)’s Planning, Attention, Simultaneous Processing, and Successive Processing (PASS) scale by clustering the scores using the k-means method, focusing on clinical groups. In Study 1, 140 clinical cases evaluated using the CAS at University A’s educational counseling service were analyzed. The k-means clustering method was applied based on the full-scale standard scores, PASS scale scores, score discrepancies, and subtest scaled scores. Study 2 applied the same clustering method to a clinical group of 91 cases with ADHD, ASD, or comorbid ADHD–ASD, excluding those with intellectual developmental disorders or other disorders. In Study 1, a group with lower full-scale standard scores indicating general intellectual development was identified. Study 2 identified a cluster of cases with ADHD, ASD, or comorbid ADHD–ASD that showed distinct discrepancies among the four standard scores. In addition, there were no significant differences in the diagnoses across clusters. The Japanese version of the CAS provides valid cognitive profile insights in clinical settings, which can aid in planning support interventions beyond clinical diagnosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurocognitive Processes: Measurement, Connections to Academic Achievement and Clinical Applications)

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18 pages, 1075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Factors in the Psychological Well-Being of Future Teachers: A Structural Model

by Raquel Gilar-Corbi, Andrea Izquierdo and Juan-Luis Castejón

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060070 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 403

Abstract

Scientific research has examined relationships between various emotional factors in teachers; however, few studies have analyzed these relationships jointly. This study aimed to explore mechanisms through which emotional intelligence, resilience, stress, and burnout influence the psychological well-being of 338 trainee teachers (comprising 72.8% [...] Read more.

Scientific research has examined relationships between various emotional factors in teachers; however, few studies have analyzed these relationships jointly. This study aimed to explore mechanisms through which emotional intelligence, resilience, stress, and burnout influence the psychological well-being of 338 trainee teachers (comprising 72.8% women) from the University of Alicante. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the direct and indirect effects among the variables included in the model. The instruments employed were the Trait Meta-Mood Scale, the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, the Maslach Burnout Inventory, and Ryff’s Psychological Well-being Scale. The results indicated that resilience had a direct and positive effect on psychological well-being, while burnout had a direct but negative effect. In addition, emotional intelligence and stress influenced psychological well-being indirectly: emotional intelligence exerted a positive impact through resilience, whereas stress had a negative impact through burnout. The model explained a high percentage (85.3%) of variance in psychological well-being. This study provides empirical evidence on how these variables interact and highlights the importance of incorporating these abilities into teacher training programs to enhance teachers’ psychological well-being and thereby improve the quality of the educational process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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19 pages, 1815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controlling Rater Effects in Divergent Thinking Assessment: An Item Response Theory Approach to Individual Response and Snapshot Scoring

by Gerardo Pellegrino, Janika Saretzki and Mathias Benedek

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060069 - 17 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Scoring divergent thinking (DT) tasks poses significant challenges as differences between raters affect the resulting scores. Item Response Theory (IRT) offers a statistical framework to handle differences in rater severity and discrimination. We applied the IRT framework by re-analysing an open access dataset [...] Read more.

Scoring divergent thinking (DT) tasks poses significant challenges as differences between raters affect the resulting scores. Item Response Theory (IRT) offers a statistical framework to handle differences in rater severity and discrimination. We applied the IRT framework by re-analysing an open access dataset including three scored DT tasks from 202 participants. After comparing different IRT models, we examined rater severity and discrimination parameters for individual response scoring and snapshot scoring using the best-fitting model—Graded Response Model. Secondly, we compared IRT-adjusted scores with non-adjusted average and max-scoring scores in terms of reliability and fluency confound effect. Additionally, we simulated missing data to assess the robustness of these approaches. Our results showed that IRT models can be applied to both individual response scoring and snapshot scoring. IRT-adjusted and unadjusted scores were highly correlated, indicating that, under conditions of high inter-rater agreement, rater variability in severity and discrimination does not substantially impact scores. Overall, our study confirms that IRT is a valuable statistical framework for modeling rater severity and discrimination for different DT scores, although further research is needed to clarify the conditions under which it offers the greatest practical benefit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of a Divergent Thinking Dataset)

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3 pages, 662 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Cognitive Ability Testing in the Workplace: Modern Approaches and Methods

by Anne E. Kato, Yuliya M. Cheban-Gore, Charles A. Scherbaum and Harold W. Goldstein

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060068 - 11 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Despite the increasing importance of cognitive abilities in today’s workplaces and growing dissatisfaction with the status quo of cognitive ability assessment, the ways that cognitive abilities are conceptualized and measured in the workplace have changed very little over the past century (Scherbaum et [...] Read more.

Despite the increasing importance of cognitive abilities in today’s workplaces and growing dissatisfaction with the status quo of cognitive ability assessment, the ways that cognitive abilities are conceptualized and measured in the workplace have changed very little over the past century (Scherbaum et al [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Ability Testing in the Workplace: Modern Approaches and Methods)

18 pages, 4767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligence and Dietary Habits: An International Study of Mensa Members

by Anna Csák and Péter Przemyslaw Ujma

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060067 - 10 Jun 2025

Viewed by 490

Abstract

Numerous studies have shown a positive relationship between intelligence and health, with higher intelligence quotient (IQ) linked to better health outcomes, longer life expectancy, and lower rates of non-communicable diseases. Better health behaviour in the more intelligent (either due to better health knowledge [...] Read more.

Numerous studies have shown a positive relationship between intelligence and health, with higher intelligence quotient (IQ) linked to better health outcomes, longer life expectancy, and lower rates of non-communicable diseases. Better health behaviour in the more intelligent (either due to better health knowledge or more advantageous social-financial opportunities) and system integrity theory (overlaps in the background causes of intelligence and health, such as genetic factors) are competing explanations for this link. This study aimed to examine the dietary habits of high-IQ individuals compared to a control group. An online questionnaire was completed by Mensa members (IQ ≥ 130) and control group participants from three countries, assessing various lifestyle factors, especially dietary habits. Key findings include lower smoking rates among Mensa members, special diets primarily for personal rather than medical reasons, and more frequent consumption of some national staples. There was no clear trend for healthier nutritional habits among Mensa members, suggesting that this aspect of health behavior does not account for better health in the more intelligent and supporting system integrity theory instead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Approaches to Improving Intelligence)

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13 pages, 793 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

From Storytime to Success: Prospective Longitudinal Associations Between Toddler Literacy Enrichment and Long-Term Student Engagement in a Millennial Birth Cohort of Boys and Girls

by Nairy Kazandjian, Kianoush Harandian, Stéfanie Routhier-Guilmette, Marie-Michèle Dufour, Isabelle Archambault and Linda S. Pagani

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060066 - 10 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Cross-sectional research suggests associations between enrichment and cognitive skills in toddlerhood. There are no prospectively designed longitudinal studies that investigate the link between early home literacy activities and subsequent mechanisms that explain the putative cognitive benefits. This study tests long-term associations between toddler [...] Read more.

Cross-sectional research suggests associations between enrichment and cognitive skills in toddlerhood. There are no prospectively designed longitudinal studies that investigate the link between early home literacy activities and subsequent mechanisms that explain the putative cognitive benefits. This study tests long-term associations between toddler literacy enrichment and later student engagement across key academic transitions, from kindergarten to the end of high school. Using the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) population-based birth cohort data, we examined whether parent-reported experiences of shared reading, looking at picture books or illustrated stories, and pretend writing at age 2 years predict later teacher- and self-reported student engagement at ages 6, 12, and 17 years. The results from multiple regression models, stratified by sex and adjusted for pre-existing and concurrent child and family characteristics, revealed significant associations between early literacy enrichment and later engagement. For boys and girls, literacy enrichment in toddlerhood predicted increases in classroom engagement from kindergarten to the end of high school. These findings highlight the lasting influence of early literacy exposure on subsequent learning-related behaviors, both in and beyond the classroom. They underscore the importance of promoting enrichment in early childhood as a family strategy toward individual readiness to learn, a cornerstone of crystalized intelligence. Full article

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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 1092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

General Ability Level Moderates Cognitive–Achievement Relations for Mathematics

by Christopher R. Niileksela, Jacob Robbins and Daniel B. Hajovsky

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060065 - 5 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 519

Abstract

Spearman’s Law of Diminishing Returns (SLODR) suggests general intelligence would be a stronger predictor of academic skills at lower general ability levels, and broad cognitive abilities would be stronger predictors of academic skills at higher general ability levels. Few studies have examined how [...] Read more.

Spearman’s Law of Diminishing Returns (SLODR) suggests general intelligence would be a stronger predictor of academic skills at lower general ability levels, and broad cognitive abilities would be stronger predictors of academic skills at higher general ability levels. Few studies have examined how cognitive–mathematics relations may vary for people with different levels of general cognitive ability. Multi-group structural equation modeling tested whether cognitive–mathematics relations differed by general ability levels for school-aged children (grades 1–5 and grades 6–12) using the Woodcock-Johnson Third Edition (n = 4470) and Fourth Edition (n = 3891) standardization samples. Results suggested that relationships between cognitive abilities and mathematics varied across general ability groups. General intelligence showed a stronger relative effect on mathematics for those with lower general ability compared to those with average or high general ability, and broad cognitive abilities showed a stronger relative effect on mathematics for those with average or high general ability compared to those with lower general ability. These findings provide a more nuanced understanding of cognitive–mathematics relations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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19 pages, 1662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scoring German Alternate Uses Items Applying Large Language Models

by Janika Saretzki, Thomas Knopf, Boris Forthmann, Benjamin Goecke, Ann-Kathrin Jaggy, Mathias Benedek and Selina Weiss

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060064 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 562

Abstract

The alternate uses task (AUT) is the most popular measure when it comes to the assessment of creative potential. Since their implementation, AUT responses have been rated by humans, which is a laborious task and requires considerable resources. Large language models (LLMs) have [...] Read more.

The alternate uses task (AUT) is the most popular measure when it comes to the assessment of creative potential. Since their implementation, AUT responses have been rated by humans, which is a laborious task and requires considerable resources. Large language models (LLMs) have shown promising performance in automatically scoring AUT responses in English as well as in other languages, but it is not clear which method works best for German data. Therefore, we investigated the performance of different LLMs for the automated scoring of German AUT responses. We compiled German data across five research groups including ~50,000 responses for 15 different alternate uses objects from eight lab and online survey studies (including ~2300 participants) to examine generalizability across datasets and assessment conditions. Following a pre-registered analysis plan, we compared the performance of two fine-tuned, multilingual LLM-based approaches [Cross-Lingual Alternate Uses Scoring (CLAUS) and the Open Creativity Scoring with Artificial Intelligence (OCSAI)] with the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT-4) in scoring (a) the original German AUT responses and (b) the responses translated to English. We found that the LLM-based scorings were substantially correlated with human ratings, with higher relationships for OCSAI followed by GPT-4 and CLAUS. Response translation, however, had no consistent positive effect. We discuss the generalizability of the results across different items and studies and derive recommendations and future directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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17 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Log File Times as Indicators of Structured Figural Matrix Processing

by Dominik Weber, Marco Koch, Frank M. Spinath, Florian Krieger and Nicolas Becker

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060063 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 488

Abstract

Previous research has shown individual differences in (a) time on task (ToT) and (b) the degree of structuredness in processing figural matrices. The goal of this article was to integrate these two lines of research by analyzing log files from a computer-based assessment [...] Read more.

Previous research has shown individual differences in (a) time on task (ToT) and (b) the degree of structuredness in processing figural matrices. The goal of this article was to integrate these two lines of research by analyzing log files from a computer-based assessment (N = 198) to examine the role of three ToT sub-components: onset times (before engaging with the first matrix rule), interrule times (between the rules), and intrarule times (within a single rule). We tested three clues that support the assumptions that the interrule times reflect the cognitive construction of a rule-specific solution plan, while the onset times represent a global orientation reaction, and the intrarule times capture the behavioral execution of the plan: (1) based on the interrule times, we identified two clusters of participants, of which one processed the matrices in a more structured fashion; (2) only the accelerating effect of the interrule times across the test was associated with test performance, indicating higher reasoning saturation; (3) a mediated path analysis revealed that faster interrule times propagate in faster intrarule times and more structured processing of matrix rules, resulting in better performance. Confirming internal validity, the three log file times accounted for an incremental 24.30% of test performance variance beyond the traditional ToT. Confirming external validity, two clusters were also identified based on the interrule times from the first test and performance scores from a second matrix test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Assessment)

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19 pages, 1516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Human–AI Interaction Capability in the Generative AI Era: The Influence of Critical Thinking

by Feiming Li, Xinyu Yan, Hongli Su, Rong Shen and Gang Mao

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060062 - 26 May 2025

Viewed by 608

Abstract

(1) Background: In the era of generative AI (GenAI), assessing AI literacy is essential for understanding how effectively non-expert users can interact with AI. However, existing assessment tools primarily focus on users’ understanding of AI principles or rely on self-reported scales, neglecting critical [...] Read more.

(1) Background: In the era of generative AI (GenAI), assessing AI literacy is essential for understanding how effectively non-expert users can interact with AI. However, existing assessment tools primarily focus on users’ understanding of AI principles or rely on self-reported scales, neglecting critical thinking and actual interaction capabilities. To address this gap, this study aims to design and validate evaluation indicators targeting the behavioral process of human–GenAI interactions and analyze the impact of critical thinking. (2) Methods: Grounded in information literacy and critical thinking frameworks, this study operationalized human–AI interaction capabilities into behavioral indicators and rubrics through observation, surveys, and pilot studies. Data were collected from 121 undergraduates completing two real-world tasks with GenAI, and their interaction processes were documented and evaluated. (3) Results: The indicators showed acceptable inter-rater and internal consistency reliability. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis confirmed a three-dimensional structure. Further analysis showed that interaction capabilities varied across gender, academic background, AIGC use frequency, critical thinking disposition levels, and question chain logic. (4) Conclusions: The developed evaluation indicators are reliable and valid. Further analysis reveals that a high critical thinking disposition can offset the disadvantage of lower usage frequency. This highlights the significance of critical thinking in enhancing human–GenAI interaction capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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26 pages, 2849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

When the Past Is Backward and the Future Is Forward: An Embodied Cognition Intervention in Preschoolers with Developmental Language Disorder

by Carla Vergara, Mabel Urrutia and Alberto Domínguez

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060061 - 25 May 2025

Viewed by 655

Abstract

This quasi-experimental study investigates the impact of an embodied intervention on the semantics of transitive verbs in children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), grounded in the “TIME IS SPACE” conceptual metaphor—where the future is mapped as forward and the past as backward. The [...] Read more.

This quasi-experimental study investigates the impact of an embodied intervention on the semantics of transitive verbs in children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), grounded in the “TIME IS SPACE” conceptual metaphor—where the future is mapped as forward and the past as backward. The intervention involved a pretest and a posttest design, using the induced plasticity technique to saturate motor areas through repetitive arm movements (either forward or backward). Then, we determined the influence of this saturation on the auditory comprehension of past- and future-tense sentences. Fifty-seven children (ages 5 years and 6 months to 6 years and 9 months) participated in the experiment. Participants were divided into four groups: two groups of children with DLD—14 Chilean students from speech therapy institutions who received the intervention and 15 who did not—and two groups of chronologically matched typically developing (TD) peers, with 14 children in each intervention condition. The hypothesis proposed that a psychoeducational intervention would enhance the comprehension of time–space conceptual metaphors in children with DLD, reflected by greater interference effects (higher RTs and lower ARs in matching vs. mismatching conditions). A 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 mixed ANOVA was used to identify significant differences in reaction times and accuracy rates. Results showed significant differences in the posttest for the DLD group with intervention versus the same group without intervention, particularly in the semantics of future tense with forward motion. Furthermore, the study found that the impact of the intervention depended on the level of narrative discourse comprehension. These findings suggest that embodied interventions leveraging metaphorical mappings of time and space can enhance verb tense comprehension, particularly in preschoolers with narrative comprehension challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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21 pages, 3304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generative AI in Game Design: Enhancing Creativity or Constraining Innovation?

by Sultan A. Alharthi

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060060 - 24 May 2025

Viewed by 1297

Abstract

Generative AI tools are increasingly being integrated into game design and development workflows, offering new possibilities for creativity, efficiency, and innovation. This paper explores the evolving role of these tools from the perspective of game designers and developers, focusing on the benefits and [...] Read more.

Generative AI tools are increasingly being integrated into game design and development workflows, offering new possibilities for creativity, efficiency, and innovation. This paper explores the evolving role of these tools from the perspective of game designers and developers, focusing on the benefits and challenges they present in fostering creativity. Through a mixed-method study, we conducted an online survey (n = 42) with game design professionals, followed by in-depth online interviews (n = 9), to investigate how generative AI influences the creative process, decision-making, and artistic vision. Our findings reveal that while generative AI accelerates ideation, enhances prototyping, and automates repetitive tasks, it also raises concerns about originality, creative dependency, and undermine of human-authored content. Future work will aim to address these challenges by investigating strategies to balance leveraging AI’s capabilities with preserving the integrity of human creativity. This includes developing collaborative human-AI workflows that maintain human oversight, designing systems that support rather than replace creative decision-making, and establishing ethical guidelines to ensure transparency, accountability, and authorship in AI-assisted content creation. By doing so, we aim to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of generative AI’s role in creative practices and its implications for the game design and development lifecycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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22 pages, 1892 KiB

Open AccessReview

Determining Factors for the Development of Critical Thinking in Higher Education

by Dora Lucia Jaramillo Gómez, Annie Julieth Álvarez Maestre, Abad Ernesto Parada Trujillo, Carlos Alfredo Pérez Fuentes, Dago Hernando Bedoya Ortiz and Ruth Katherine Sanabria Alarcón

J. Intell. 2025, 13(6), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13060059 - 22 May 2025

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Abstract

This study arises from the growing need to train professionals capable of confronting and analyzing the overabundance of information in an increasingly complex world, where critical thinking is seen as an indispensable skill for informed decision making and problem solving. To this end, [...] Read more.

This study arises from the growing need to train professionals capable of confronting and analyzing the overabundance of information in an increasingly complex world, where critical thinking is seen as an indispensable skill for informed decision making and problem solving. To this end, a systematic narrative review methodology was applied to the scientific literature, compiling data from various international databases. The results reveal that physiological factors (memory, attention, nutrition and physical activity), psychological factors (cognitive biases, fear of ambiguity, and metacognition), sociocultural factors (diversity, inequality, and cultural norms), technological factors (digitalization, use of AI, and digital literacy), and educational factors (active pedagogical strategies and collaborative work) play a determining role in the development of critical thinking in higher education. The discussion emphasizes the complex interaction between these factors and underscores the need for holistic approaches that strengthen both cognitive competencies and emotional well-being. In conclusion, we recommend designing comprehensive training interventions that consider the identified factors, promoting inclusive and reflective environments, aimed at developing critical, autonomous graduates capable of facing contemporary challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 6 (June 2025) – 13 articles

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