Religions

19 pages, 513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Taso to Erke’ün: The Transformation of East Syriac Christian Designations in China (Tang to Yuan Periods)

by Xue Yang and Tursunjan Imin

Religions 2025, 16(9), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091088 - 22 Aug 2025

The historical evolution of two designations for East Syriac Christians in China—taso (達娑, including its variants) and erke’ün (也里可溫)—from the Tang to the Yuan dynasty is examined. Analyses of historical records and Old Uighur Christian manuscripts reveal their usage patterns, referents, and [...] Read more.

The historical evolution of two designations for East Syriac Christians in China—taso (達娑, including its variants) and erke’ün (也里可溫)—from the Tang to the Yuan dynasty is examined. Analyses of historical records and Old Uighur Christian manuscripts reveal their usage patterns, referents, and historical development. Taso and its variants served as both self-referential and externally applied designations from West Asia to East Asia before and during the early Mongol–Yuan period. Erke’ün, initially an official title for East Syriac Church leaders under Mongol–Yuan rule, replaced Taso and expanded to denote Christians in general. This terminological shift reflects significant transformations in the community’s identity and institutional standing within China. The findings offer new perspectives on the transmission and adaptation of East Syriac Christianity in the Chinese context. Full article

15 pages, 251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ghanaian Migrants in Search of a Promised Land Abroad: The Role of Biblical Narrative in the Transcontinental Migration from Ghana

by Edmond Akwasi Agyeman and Nana Yaw Wi Asamoah Boadi

Religions 2025, 16(9), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091087 - 22 Aug 2025

Abstract

In this paper, we examine the influence of biblical narratives on the transcontinental migration from Ghana to Europe and the rest of the West. This paper adopts a case study approach and examines how two neo-prophetic churches in Ghana, relying on biblical narratives, [...] Read more.

In this paper, we examine the influence of biblical narratives on the transcontinental migration from Ghana to Europe and the rest of the West. This paper adopts a case study approach and examines how two neo-prophetic churches in Ghana, relying on biblical narratives, incorporate migration into their theology and ministry. This paper shows that biblical narratives, such as the call of Abraham and the exodus experience of the Jews, influence the teaching and ministerial practices of the churches. This paper further sheds light on how coloniality, failed state, and economic injustice, among others, underpin and interrelate with the situation of the migrants, their motivation, and their actions within the migration and religion ecosystem. Under the influence of prosperity theology, these churches reinforce the belief that migration from Ghana to Europe, North America, and the rest of the developed world is a journey to the Promised Land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transgressing Boundaries: Biblical and Social Scientific Studies of Migration)

20 pages, 1217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isomorphic Heterotopias of Martyrdom Spaces and the Overlapping of Memory: A Comparative Study of the Jeoldusan Martyrdom Site and Yanghwajin Cemetery in Seoul

by Ting Zhou and Won il Cho

Religions 2025, 16(9), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091086 - 22 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study examines two proximate yet theologically and spatially disparate religious spaces in Seoul: the Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine (Korean: 절두산 순교 성지; hereafter “Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine”) and the Yanghwajin Protestant Cemetery (Korean: 양화진 묘원; hereafter “Yanghwajin Cemetery”). We propose the concept of isomorphic [...] Read more.

This study examines two proximate yet theologically and spatially disparate religious spaces in Seoul: the Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine (Korean: 절두산 순교 성지; hereafter “Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine”) and the Yanghwajin Protestant Cemetery (Korean: 양화진 묘원; hereafter “Yanghwajin Cemetery”). We propose the concept of isomorphic heterotopias and discuss the logic of intersecting memories. Drawing on Foucault’s concept of heterotopia and cultural memory theory, the study finds that the Jeoldusan Martyrs’ Shrine, through architectural enclosure, the exhibition of relics, and pilgrimage rituals, foregrounds the vertical redemption of martyrs’ flesh and faith, reinforcing ecclesiastical discourse and collective salvation narratives. In contrast, at Yanghwajin Cemetery, through dispersed tombstone layouts, egalitarian epitaph inscriptions, and public commemorative activities, the study finds that the site presents the dialectic of the martyr spirit within a secular spiritual space and individual testimonies. Despite their spatial heterogeneity, their geographic proximity generates a dialogical memory field: the vertical sacrality of the shrine is refracted through the cemetery’s horizontality, while the cemetery’s public spirit resonates with the shrine’s liturgical framework. This dialogical memory field, shaped by shared physical environments and common public narrative platforms—generates a long-term coexistence without convergence, producing a spatial relationship of “non-integrative entanglement” born of antagonism. At the same time, these sites are not isolated spatial fragments; rather, through urban governance, they are woven into the same memory politics network, forming an “isomorphic heterotopia.” Through politically inflected discursive narratives, both sites facilitate multidirectional flows of memory, preserving their respective “canons” while re-contextualizing each other within the same urban memory network. In doing so, they engage in an ongoing process of mutual rereading and co-construction, producing a re-contextualization of spatial memory and shaping a “composite historical sensibility” that, in turn, contributes to the city’s character. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Politics: Interactions and Boundaries)

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14 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Kalmyk Pilgrim in the Biography of the Dalai Lama: Baaza Bagshi’s Journey to Tibet as Seen from Both Sides

by Bembya Mitruev

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081085 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

Alongside historical narratives, there exists, in Old Kalmyk literature, a lesser-known corpus of travel writing that documents pilgrimages to major religious and political centers such as China, Tibet, and Mongolia. One notable and extant example of this genre is the travel account of [...] Read more.

Alongside historical narratives, there exists, in Old Kalmyk literature, a lesser-known corpus of travel writing that documents pilgrimages to major religious and political centers such as China, Tibet, and Mongolia. One notable and extant example of this genre is the travel account of Baaza Menkedjuev, a Gelung from the Maloderbetovskiy Ulus, more widely known as Baaza Bagshi. His first-person narrative was translated into Russian by A. M. Pozdneev in 1897 under the name “Skazanie o khozhdenii v Tibetskuiu stranu malo-dörbötskago Baaza Bagshi” [Narrative of the travel to Tibet by the Maloderbet Baaza Bagshi] and offers valuable ethnographic insights into a Kalmyk pilgrim’s journey to Tibet in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Until recently, scholarship on Baaza Bagshi’s Tibetan sojourn has been confined to his own account, with no corroborating evidence found in Tibetan-language sources. This study addresses that lacuna by examining references to Baaza Bagshi in the Tibetan-language biography (Tib. rnam thar) of the 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso (Tib. thub bstan rgya mtsho, 1876–1933). The significance of these references lies not only in the information provided about the number of audiences with the Dalai Lama Baaza Bagshi received, the dates of his visits, and the content of their meetings, but also in the fact that they demonstrate how the Kalmyks—despite living in the European part of Russia, the furthest from the Mongolian Buddhist world—did not lose their religious ties with Tibet. The corroboration of Baaza Bagshi’s visit in both Kalmyk and Tibetan sources allows for a more integrated understanding of Kalmyk–Tibetan relations and contributes to the study of interregional Buddhist networks. Methods of historical contextualization, historiographical critique, and comparative source analysis were used for this research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tibet-Mongol Buddhism Studies)

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18 pages, 294 KiB

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“The One Before the One” in Plato, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Damascius: The Journey to the Ineffable One

by Konstantinos Laparidis

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081084 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

The reason I chose this particular theme is because I considered that Plotinus’ One cannot fully satisfy the demand for an ultimate principle. This becomes evident when we study the Areopagite and even more so Damascius, whose notion of the ultimate principle refers [...] Read more.

The reason I chose this particular theme is because I considered that Plotinus’ One cannot fully satisfy the demand for an ultimate principle. This becomes evident when we study the Areopagite and even more so Damascius, whose notion of the ultimate principle refers to a metaphysical source that precedes the Neoplatonic One. The selection of these three philosophers was based on the following rationale: Firstly, Plato is the founder of the concept of the One. Then comes Dionysius, who speaks of the supra-essential One and connects it with God. Finally, I turn to Damascius, who almost explicitly states that there exists an ineffable reality that precedes the One and is the ineffable One. This endeavor unfolds through a reasoning process developed in three escalating stages, as follows: Initially, in Plato, we encounter the “One that is not one”, which corresponds to light. Next, in Dionysius the Areopagite, we encounter the “supra-essential One”, which corresponds to the invisible light (the place where we can only stand, but cannot see). Finally, in Damascius, we encounter the “ineffable, inexpressible One”, which is not even invisible. In Damascius, what makes this “One before the One” unique is not that we do not know it because, by nature, it is, e.g., invisible, but because it does not allow us to know the reason why we do not know it. Through the connection of these three philosophers, I will aim to demonstrate that this “one” possesses a self-referential existence, establishing its superiority in relation to the One of Plotinus. In the final analysis, the article aims to connect the concept of the supreme principle as God, in relation to this highly apophatic One. Therefore, I will develop the reasoning according to which this “One before the One” can exist. Full article

21 pages, 467 KiB

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Faith and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Catholic Education: A Theological Virtue Ethics Perspective

by Jeff Clyde Guillermo Corpuz

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081083 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study responds to the increasing call for thoughtful theological and ethical engagement with Artificial Intelligence (AI) by examining the role of personal theological reflection using Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) content in Catholic theological education. It investigates how both educators and students might [...] Read more.

This study responds to the increasing call for thoughtful theological and ethical engagement with Artificial Intelligence (AI) by examining the role of personal theological reflection using Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) content in Catholic theological education. It investigates how both educators and students might utilize AI-generated imagery as a pedagogical resource with which to enrich theological insight and foster ethical discernment, particularly through the lens of theological virtue ethics. AI is not a substitute for all human tasks. However, the use of AI holds potential for theology and catechetical religious education. Following Gläser-Zikuda’s model of Self-Reflecting Methods of Learning Research, this study systematically engages in reflective observation to examine how the use of GenAI in theology classrooms has influenced personal theological thinking, pedagogical practices, and ethical considerations. It documents experiences using common generative AI tools such as ChatGPT, Canva, Meta AI, Deep AI, and Gencraft in theology classes. The principles of virtue ethics and Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HCAI) offer a critical framework for ethical, pedagogical, and theological engagement. The findings contribute to the emerging interdisciplinary discourse on AI ethics and theology, and religious pedagogy in the digital age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spirituality in Action: Perspectives on New Evangelization)

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20 pages, 309 KiB

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Converso Traits in Spanish Baroque: Revisiting the Everlasting Presence of Teresa of Ávila as Pillar of Hispanidad

by Silvina Schammah Gesser

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081082 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

Some of Spain’s greatest humanists—Juan Luis Vives, Antonio de Nebrija, Juan de Ávila, Luis de León, and Benito Arias Montano—were from a converso background. Recent scholarship suggests that two of the three most influential religious movements in sixteenth-century Spain—Juan de Ávila’s evangelical movement [...] Read more.

Some of Spain’s greatest humanists—Juan Luis Vives, Antonio de Nebrija, Juan de Ávila, Luis de León, and Benito Arias Montano—were from a converso background. Recent scholarship suggests that two of the three most influential religious movements in sixteenth-century Spain—Juan de Ávila’s evangelical movement and Teresa of Ávila’s Barefoot Carmelites—were founded by conversos and presented converso membership, whose winds of religious innovation to tame Christian Orthodoxy and Counter-Reformation Spanish society, through the influence of Italian Humanism and reform, prioritized spiritual practice, social toleration, and religious concord. Indeed, Santa Teresa de Ávila, a major innovator within the Spanish Church, was herself from a converso family with Jewish ancestry. She became a key female theologist who transcended as an identity marker of the Spanish Baroque, conceived as quintessential of the Spanish Golden Age. Coopted in different periods, she “reappeared” in the 1930s as Patron of the Sección Femenina de la Falange y de las JONS, the women’s branch of the new radical right, turning into a role model of femininity for highly conservative religious women. Consecrated as “Santa de la Raza”, she became the undisputable womanized icon of the so-called “Spanish Crusade”, the slogan which General F. Franco implemented, with the approval of the Spanish Catholic Church, to re-cast in a pseudo-theological narrative the rebellion against the Spanish Second Republic in July 1936. This article examines different appropriations of the figure of Teresa de Ávila as a pillar of “Hispanidad”, in the last centuries within the changing sociopolitical contexts and theological debates in which this instrumentalization appeared. By highlighting the plasticity of this converso figure, the article suggests possible lines of research regarding the Jewish origins of some national icons in Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medieval Judaism and Jewish Diaspora: With an Emphasis on Crypto-Judaism)

13 pages, 611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Babylonian-Inspired Biblical Features and the Yahwistic Exilic History

by Tallay Ornan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081081 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

The framing of the Hebrew Bible in the Mesopotamian–Babylonian landscape is evident in two of its central themes. First, Abraham, the forefather of the Hebrews, is presented as a native of Ur in south Mesopotamia, whence he left for Harran and then reached [...] Read more.

The framing of the Hebrew Bible in the Mesopotamian–Babylonian landscape is evident in two of its central themes. First, Abraham, the forefather of the Hebrews, is presented as a native of Ur in south Mesopotamia, whence he left for Harran and then reached the Promised Land. Second is the exile of the Judahite elites to Babylonia, and the later return of some of them to Jerusalem to build their Second Temple. As the Bible was written, rewritten, and compiled by Babylonian exiles, primarily authored after the Fall of Jerusalem, its compilation by Judean exiles reveals a certain legitimization for existence in Exile, namely, the first revelation of YHWH outside of the Promised Land. This article examines the impact of the Babylonian surroundings on the Exiles’ approach to the representation of YHWH. It surveys the role of the Levantine goddess ’Ašerah, while proposing that alongside ’Ašerah, there may have been a male god named ’Ašer who, in pre-exilic times, was probably part of the Yahwistic religion and who was subsequently eliminated or degraded by the Judean exilic compilers of the Bible as it has reached us. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Bible and Ancient Mesopotamia)

15 pages, 380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Maqāṣid as a Means for a Contemporary, Ethically Based Muslim Thought: A Comparison of the Views of Ṭāhā ʿAbd al-Raḥmān and Ṭaha Jābir al-ʿAlwānī

by Eva Kepplinger

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081080 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

The modern debate on the maqāṣid has become very diverse and includes numerous suggestions on how the maqāṣid are supposed to reform Muslim (legal) thought. For an illustration of this diversity, the approaches of two very different intellectuals are compared with each other. [...] Read more.

The modern debate on the maqāṣid has become very diverse and includes numerous suggestions on how the maqāṣid are supposed to reform Muslim (legal) thought. For an illustration of this diversity, the approaches of two very different intellectuals are compared with each other. One scholar is the philosopher Ṭāhā ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (b. 1944), whose reflections are contrasted with those of the jurist Ṭaha Jābir al-ʿAlwānī (d. 2016). This research shows that they share some similarities in their premises regarding the ability of the maqāṣid to reform Muslim thought; however, differences can be noticed regarding the content of their maqāṣid concepts and how their concepts should be applied in practice. While al-ʿAlwānī presents concrete suggestions for practical applications, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān understands his contributions as a theoretical basis that is supposed to be used by Muslim jurists in order to re-establish Islamic law on an ethical basis. Full article

18 pages, 296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptualizing Psychedelic Pure Consciousness

by Mark Losoncz

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081079 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

Drawing upon a meticulous delineation of pure consciousness’s fundamental and necessary features—including unstructuredness, maximal simplicity, selflessness, awareness as such, zero-perspective, and the absence of specific phenomenal qualities—this article asserts that a full-fledged experience of pure consciousness is attainable within the psychedelic state. Critically, [...] Read more.

Drawing upon a meticulous delineation of pure consciousness’s fundamental and necessary features—including unstructuredness, maximal simplicity, selflessness, awareness as such, zero-perspective, and the absence of specific phenomenal qualities—this article asserts that a full-fledged experience of pure consciousness is attainable within the psychedelic state. Critically, this psychedelic manifestation is argued to be phenomenologically indistinguishable in its core properties from pure consciousness accessed via meditative practices. Consequently, this finding not only problematizes, but actually directly refutes Metzinger’s thesis, which posits meditation as the sole “best and most natural candidate” for achieving pure consciousness. Moreover, this work champions a soft phenomenological perennialism. This perspective navigates a middle ground between rigid perennialism and radical constructivism, underscoring the identical phenomenological core shared by all pure consciousness experiences, including those induced by psychedelics. This exploration further posits that psychedelic pure consciousness experiences can yield significant epistemic insights into the fundamental nature of consciousness, the self, and reality. Beyond this, a systematic phenomenology of pure consciousness is demonstrated to offer profound contributions to our understanding of certain religious–spiritual concepts such as God. Nonetheless, while acknowledging naturalistic critiques, a significant caveat is issued: extreme caution is warranted regarding religious–spiritual interpretations gleaned from such phenomenologies. Ultimately, the paper underscores the burgeoning importance of a spiritual naturalistic interpretation of pure consciousness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychedelics and Religion)

34 pages, 405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of the Reformed Church in Hungary

by Sándor Fekete

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081078 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

The Reformed Church in Hungary is a Reformed Protestant church in terms of its confession of faith, in which both adjectives, Reformed and Protestant, are emphasized. From this formulation follows the critique and firm rejection of a form of organization that existed before [...] Read more.

The Reformed Church in Hungary is a Reformed Protestant church in terms of its confession of faith, in which both adjectives, Reformed and Protestant, are emphasized. From this formulation follows the critique and firm rejection of a form of organization that existed before and still exists today: that of the Catholic Church. The foundations of Reformed (in this article, the term “Reformed” is used to designate the ecclesiastical and theological tradition associated with Calvin, Bullinger, Zwingli, and others) church institutions and church organization were formulated by Calvin in the Institutio, from which Reformed church law, through its historical development, formulated the principle of universal priesthood as a fundamental principle, the principle of synodal presbyterate as a constitutional principle of the church, and the principle of a free church in a free state, although the latter establishes the relationship between church and state. In distinguishing between a theologically postulated church and a church embodied in legal organization, canon law may examine the latter, and in particular, the canon law of the Protestant churches indeed sharply distinguishes it from the theological concept of church. Thus, in examining the development of the organization of the so-called visible church and the questions of the structure and functioning of the institution in the present, I will examine the organization and functioning of the Reformed Church in Hungary in the light of the organizational principles and methods that have developed historically, with a view to outlining the conditions for future optimal functioning. In my study, I trace the transformation of the Reformed Church from its beginnings to the change of regime. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecclesiology in Context: Exploring the Historical, Cultural, and Theological Dimensions of the Church)

23 pages, 1094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Sinicization of “ojas”, the Formation of “鬼舐/剃頭 Ghost Licking/Shaving Head”, and the Authenticity of the Guanding Sūtra

by Minhui Zheng

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081077 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

The translations of the Sanskrit term “ojas (apahṛ)” in various Chinese versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are as follows: The Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) avoided translating “ojas” independently, rendering “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” [...] Read more.

The translations of the Sanskrit term “ojas (apahṛ)” in various Chinese versions of the Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra are as follows: The Guanding Sūtra (Sūtra on Abhiṣeka) avoided translating “ojas” independently, rendering “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of). These translations are either perplexing or overly vague. Dharmagupta translated “ojas” as “魂魄” (soul/spirit) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), but the term “魂魄” (soul/spirit) is prone to ambiguity. Both Xuanzang and Yijing translated “ojas” as “精氣” (vital essence) and “ojaḥ apahṛ” as “奪精氣” (robbing the vital essence), with consistent and precise terminology throughout their translations. Without Sanskrit–Chinese collation or a comparison of different translations, it is impossible to establish a synonymous relationship between “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), “得便” (taking advantage of), “奪/害魂魄” (robbing/harming the soul/spirit), and “奪精氣” (robbing the vital energy). Assuming that the Guanding Sūtra is a translated sūtra from abroad, the aforementioned semantic differences can be reasonably explained, precisely reflecting the historical trajectory of its translation from uncertainty to certainty, from imprecision to precision, and from non-literal translation to literal translation. Meanwhile, the theory of it being a foreign-translated sūtra also helps explain the origin of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head). If we assume that the Guanding Sūtra is a native apocryphal text that was translated into Sanskrit and then back into Chinese, there would be significant difficulties in explaining how “舐頭” (licking the head), “中害” (harming), and “得便” (taking advantage of) could have been unified as “ojaḥ apahṛ” either during the translation into Sanskrit or in the process of transmission. Therefore, the translation trajectory of “ojaḥ (apahṛ)” and the emergence of the new phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) could serve as linguistic empirical evidence supporting the theory that the text is a foreign-translated sūtra. According to the Chu Sanzang Jiji (Collection of Records of the Translation of the Tripiṭaka), this sūtra “circulated widely in the world”; thus, the phrase “惡鬼舐頭” (evil ghost licking the head) should have been familiar to the general public. Alopecia areata, a condition characterized by sudden, patchy hair loss, was not understood by ancient people, who attributed it to “evil ghost licking the head” and thus referred to it as “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head). This term emerged during the Sui Dynasty. After Xuanzang’s translation became the prevalent version, replacing the Guanding Sūtra, “鬼舐頭” (ghost licking head) gradually fell into obscurity and was replaced by “鬼剃頭” (ghost shaving head) during the Qing Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Languages and Buddhist Texts: Translation, Transmission, and Interpretation Across Traditions)

21 pages, 337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Materially Dispossessing the Troubled Theologian

by John C. McDowell

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081076 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

Linn Tonstad’s paper, ‘(Un)wise Theologians’, identifies a theological approach that puts pressure on its ability to handle its materiality sufficiently in a number of ways. However, following the trajectory of Tonstad’s discovery of “the deformations to which theology is susceptible in the university” [...] Read more.

Linn Tonstad’s paper, ‘(Un)wise Theologians’, identifies a theological approach that puts pressure on its ability to handle its materiality sufficiently in a number of ways. However, following the trajectory of Tonstad’s discovery of “the deformations to which theology is susceptible in the university” and elsewhere, a supplementation is required to specify where its thesis needs more rigorous development. Firstly, the paper’s argument locates what Tonstad describes as “self-securitization and self-assertion” in a form of a subjectivity characterisable as a docility making possessive form of divine givenness, and it draws the papal encyclical Fides et Ratio into Tonstad’s critique of the theology of John Webster to make this case. Secondly, Tonstad’s appeal to the reparative mode of contextualisation necessitates a differentiation to be made between modes of what is commonly called ‘contextual theology’ since there are forms that shelter under this umbrella term that echo the subjectivity of that which Tonstad uncompromisingly critiques. Thirdly, while ‘(Un)wise Theologians’ only lightly indexes a reparative direction properly “chastened” theology, a kenotically interrogative sensibility may prove to be sufficiently capacious for the critical conduct of “theological therapy”. If so, then it can function to constantly trouble the theological in an appropriate manner without flight into a premature dematerialised fixation point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nature, Functions and Contexts of Christian Doctrine)

19 pages, 576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hearing the Distant Temple Bell Toll: A Discussion of Bell Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry

by Xiaoxiao Xu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081075 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

This article explores the literary significance of the bell as an important image in the poetry of Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a renowned modern Chinese Buddhist reformer and poet–monk. While the bell has long-held symbolic meaning in Buddhist ritual and Chinese literary traditions, its [...] Read more.

This article explores the literary significance of the bell as an important image in the poetry of Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a renowned modern Chinese Buddhist reformer and poet–monk. While the bell has long-held symbolic meaning in Buddhist ritual and Chinese literary traditions, its role in poetry has often been overlooked in favor of material culture studies. This article addresses that discrepancy by examining how Taixu inherited and reinterpreted classical bell imagery to articulate his personal emotions and religious philosophy. Following close analysis of more than sixty of his poems, it argues that Taixu used the bell not merely as a traditional image but also as a vehicle for expressing two core Buddhist concepts: mental purification and transcendence of the mundane. The article also highlights his creative pairing of the bell with other classical Chinese images—such as sunsets, moonlight, mountains, and forests—to form complex imagery groups. Taixu’s skillful execution of this technique exemplifies the considerable literary talent and spiritual insight that enabled him to blend Buddhist doctrine with poetic expression to remarkable effect. Overall, his poetic corpus may be considered as both a continuation and a transformation of classical Chinese poetry traditions, affirming his identity as a modern poet–monk who possessed profound esthetic and philosophical vision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Arts, Spirituality, and Religion)

20 pages, 303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Forever Strange in This World.” Susan Taubes’ Diasporic Thinking

by Libera Pisano

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081074 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

This essay explores the philosophical core of Susan Taubes’ thought through her diasporic ontology—a philosophy of becoming that does not derive from statics but precedes and reconfigures them. Instead of treating exile as loss or as a deviation from origin, Taubes roots [...] Read more.

This essay explores the philosophical core of Susan Taubes’ thought through her diasporic ontology—a philosophy of becoming that does not derive from statics but precedes and reconfigures them. Instead of treating exile as loss or as a deviation from origin, Taubes roots her thinking in displacement, challenging fixed identities, theological certainties, and static notions of belonging. Although overshadowed by her husband Jacob and, due to the fragmentation of her work and her tragic death, largely neglected—with the important exception of the work of Elliot R. Wolfson, who in recent years has contributed enormously to her discovery in the field of Jewish philosophy—Taubes’ writings offer a radical rethinking of Jewish thought as a diasporic identity grounded in hermeneutic openness. Through a close reading of her letters and novel Divorcing, this paper reveals how her diasporic thinking—also evident in her critical engagement with Heidegger—forms the basis for rejecting theological dogma, Zionist ideologies, and the reification of meaning, while opening space for a lived understanding of Judaism. Moreover, I show how, by accepting worldliness as brokenness, her post-apocalyptic hopelessness does not collapse into nihilism but instead clears the ground for radical openness, where meaning emerges not from redemption but from the refusal to close the interpretive horizon. More than a thinker to be studied, Taubes enables a change of perspective: through her lens, concepts like Heimat or identity lose their static authority and are re-seen from the standpoint of exile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rabbinic Thought between Philosophy and Literature)

25 pages, 380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elements of a Culture of Peace: A Bahá’í Perspective

by Tiffani Betts Razavi

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081073 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

The realization of universal peace is a central teaching of the Bahá’í Faith and permeates individual and collective Bahá’í practice. This article explores this teaching through the lens of culture as a constructive social process based on shared beliefs and values and their [...] Read more.

The realization of universal peace is a central teaching of the Bahá’í Faith and permeates individual and collective Bahá’í practice. This article explores this teaching through the lens of culture as a constructive social process based on shared beliefs and values and their expression. It begins by outlining a Bahá’í concept of peace and then turns to the question of how Bahá’í teachings foster a culture of peace. It focuses on three elements central to a Bahá’í approach to a culture of peace, outlined as follows: (i) the beliefs people hold of themselves and the world, (ii) the importance of a sense of moral purpose as the basis of individual and collective commitment, and (iii) a framework for shared agency through individual action and community building, as illustrated by Bahá’í educational activities, participation in social discourses, and community development initiatives. The article explores each of these elements from the perspective of Bahá’í principles and practices, at the individual and collective level, in the light of the academic literature on cultures of peace, paradigm shift, and normative change, and then addresses the contribution of a Bahá’í perspective to understanding cultures of peace. It concludes with a reflection on the mode of operation of the Bahá’í community, the role of individuals, communities, institutions, and emerging cultural patterns, challenges presented by this vision of peacebuilding, and questions for future research on a Bahá’í approach to a culture of peace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Bahá’í Faith: Doctrinal and Historical Explorations—2nd Edition)

13 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Representations of Interreligious Dialogue in Italian Newspapers: A Topic-Detection Analysis (2010–2023)

by Marco Guglielmi and Stefano Sbalchiero

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081072 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

The study of the relationship between religion and newspapers embodies a well-established research field. However, relatively few studies focus on interfaith dialogue in the press. Against this backdrop, important questions about the manifestations and dynamics of interreligious dialogue in newspapers remain largely unexplored. [...] Read more.

The study of the relationship between religion and newspapers embodies a well-established research field. However, relatively few studies focus on interfaith dialogue in the press. Against this backdrop, important questions about the manifestations and dynamics of interreligious dialogue in newspapers remain largely unexplored. Adopting a quali-quantitative approach and a topic-detection methodology, the research analyzes 1186 articles from four Italian newspapers (Corriere della Sera, Il Giornale, La Stampa, Il Mattino di Padova) mentioning interreligious dialogue between 2010 and 2023. The research seeks to answer the question: how do major Italian newspapers discursively construct and represent the topic of interreligious dialogue in their coverage? The results identify five representations of interreligious dialogue in the Italian press, each interconnected and/or partially overlapping. Specifically, the analysis of the newspapers’ articles reveals: (i) a broad but fragmented and episodic representation of interreligious dialogue, highlighting a lack of systematic or sustained discussion on the topic; (ii) a hegemonic presence of the Catholic Church in the various representations of interreligious dialogue, expressed through the Pope, Church organizations, and leaders; (iii) a widespread portrayal of Islam as a “challenging religion”, associated with the idea of a “clash of civilizations” and issues surrounding the integration of Muslim immigrants; (iv) a general focus on traditional Abrahamic religions in the representation of interreligious dialogue, which tends to exclude other religious minorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Governance of Interreligious Dialogue and Freedom of/from Religion)

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13 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Gnostic Politics of World Loss

by Yi Wu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081071 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

One of the harder lessons offered by history is that only the first half of the revolution seems worth carrying out. This study examines how, contra Christianity, which spells out the fate of revolution in its entirety, Gnosticism stands as a symbol for [...] Read more.

One of the harder lessons offered by history is that only the first half of the revolution seems worth carrying out. This study examines how, contra Christianity, which spells out the fate of revolution in its entirety, Gnosticism stands as a symbol for revolution arrested and immortalized in its most radical phase. It shows that Gnosticism is a revolution that structurally renounces the prospect of phenomenal victory in exchange for the eternal preservation and constant renewal of its revolutionary energy. I do so by examining how, rejecting worldly victory, the critical spirit of Gnosticism seeks its minimal and sole embodiment in the individual (the individuated, the indivisible, the residue). I argue that, by building the court of radical inwardness as its theater for enacting what I call the “politics of world loss,” Gnosticism invents the noumenal as that impossible space for enacting the quintessentially phenomenal, i.e., the political. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

17 pages, 302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

God, Ethics, and Evolution: An Islamic Rejoinder to Sterba’s Moral Critique

by Elif Nur Balci

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081070 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper engages with James Sterba’s arguments from an Islamic theological perspective, particularly drawing on the Mu‘tazilite tradition. It focuses on three central themes: (1) the position of God in the face of horrendous evils, (2) the relationship between divine command theory and [...] Read more.

This paper engages with James Sterba’s arguments from an Islamic theological perspective, particularly drawing on the Mu‘tazilite tradition. It focuses on three central themes: (1) the position of God in the face of horrendous evils, (2) the relationship between divine command theory and moral objectivity, and (3) the compatibility of Darwinian evolution with objective morality. First, I challenge Sterba’s claim that the existence of a wholly good and powerful God is logically incompatible with horrendous evils by proposing a “theistic structuralist” framework inspired by the Mu‘tazilite scholar Qadi Abd al-Jabbar. Second, while largely agreeing with Sterba’s critique of divine command theory, I incorporate a Mu‘tazilite view that grounds moral objectivity in God’s inherently good nature. Third, I support Sterba’s argument—against Sharon Street—that Darwinian evolution does not undermine moral objectivity, but I further argue that a consistent defense of this view ultimately requires the existence of God. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

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