Religions

16 pages, 303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Affiliation and Military Service in the United States

by Ori Swed, G. Doug Davis, Michael O. Slobodchikoff, Nehema Stern and Uzi Ben Shalom

Religions 2026, 17(4), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040484 - 15 Apr 2026

Those who serve in the armed forces are shaped not only by incentives and opportunity structures but also by institutions that cultivate norms of duty, authority, and collective obligation. This study argues that religious institutions function as such socializing agents and play a [...] Read more.

Those who serve in the armed forces are shaped not only by incentives and opportunity structures but also by institutions that cultivate norms of duty, authority, and collective obligation. This study argues that religious institutions function as such socializing agents and play a measurable role in military enlistment in the United States. Complementing existing research that focuses on denomination or belief as key indicators, we introduce an institutional framework that emphasizes participation in religious communities. The focus is not on the affiliation but instead on the socialization offered and conducted in those institutions. Religious communities cultivate behavioral dispositions, such as discipline, hierarchy, and collective orientation, that align with the demands of military service. As such, they are associated with an increased likelihood of enlistment. Using data from the 2024 Cooperative Election Study (CES), we employ logistic regression models to distinguish between religious identity, institutional engagement, and individual religiosity. The results show that, per our sample, religious identity and evangelical affiliation are not significant predictors of enlistment. Instead, regular participation in religious institutions is strongly and consistently associated with a higher likelihood of military service. These findings suggest that institutional socialization can be an important factor in explaining the relationship between religion and military service. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Culture: Post-Christianity, Culture, Democracy, and Great Power Relations)

12 pages, 255 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Logic of Appropriation: A Theological Synthesis of the ‘Throwaway Culture’ and the Theology of the Body

by Sesil Lim and Yong-Gil Lee

Religions 2026, 17(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040483 - 14 Apr 2026

Abstract

This paper investigates the anthropological and ethical roots of the global ecological and social crisis, centered on Pope Francis’s critique of the “throwaway culture” (Laudato Si’, LS). While LS identifies this crisis in the linear “take–make–dispose” model and the technocratic paradigm—which [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the anthropological and ethical roots of the global ecological and social crisis, centered on Pope Francis’s critique of the “throwaway culture” (Laudato Si’, LS). While LS identifies this crisis in the linear “take–make–dispose” model and the technocratic paradigm—which prioritizes efficiency over moral reflection—this research argues that these macro-societal failures originate in a foundational spiritual pathology: concupiscence. Drawing upon St. John Paul II’s Theology of the Body (TOB), we analyze concupiscence as “appropriation,” the direct antithesis to the human vocation of the “sincere gift of self.” This study aligns LS’s socio-economic critique with Karol Wojtyła’s personalist anthropology, asserting that the systemic exploitation of nature and the marginalization of the vulnerable are structural extensions of the human failure to reread the “language of the body” in truth. The throwaway culture is thus revealed as an axiological reduction—a societal manifestation of lust that reduces both the body and creation to mere objects of utility. Consequently, a genuine ecological conversion (LS) necessitates embracing the “ethos of redemption” (TOB). This transformation of desire is essential to restoring the harmony between humanity and nature, recognizing that the ‘cry of the earth’ and the ‘cry of the poor’ are inextricably linked within an integral ecology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creative Eco-Theology: Responding to the Ecological Crisis of Creation)

19 pages, 1083 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mental Health Across Religious and Spiritual Categories: A Longitudinal Study Among Parents and Their Children

by Addison V. Clevenger and W. Justin Dyer

Religions 2026, 17(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040482 - 14 Apr 2026

Abstract

This study examines how religious and spiritual identities relate to depression and anxiety at baseline and longitudinally. Using data from the Family Foundations of Youth Development Project, which sampled parent–child dyads from the Western United States, we investigated how mental health relates to [...] Read more.

This study examines how religious and spiritual identities relate to depression and anxiety at baseline and longitudinally. Using data from the Family Foundations of Youth Development Project, which sampled parent–child dyads from the Western United States, we investigated how mental health relates to the conjunction of spirituality and religiosity (S/R), the lack of either, or one separate from the other. At baseline, children identifying as “Spiritual but not Religious” (SBNR) reported the highest levels of anxiety and depression, whereas children who identified as “Religious and Spiritual” (RAS) exhibited the lowest levels of depression. The difference between RAS identity and the SBNR identity was significant across all baseline scales, with SBNR individuals demonstrating greater pathology. Among parents, the “religious but not spiritual (RBNS) group” was more depressed than the RAS group, and both RBNS and SBNR parents were more anxious than the “not religious, nor spiritual” (NRNS) parents. Longitudinally, SBNR children uniquely showed significant decreases in their depression levels, and no increases in their anxiety levels, likely reflecting a ceiling effect given their initially high symptoms. Regarding adults, all groups except RBNS decreased in depressive symptoms over time. It is important to note that this study does not investigate the effects of spiritual or religious identity shift: i.e., conversion or deconversion. This study highlights the nuanced relationship between psychological well-being and S/R. It examines participants from the Western United States, in predominantly white, highly homogenous areas, with a large presence of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and is not generalizable to world populations. It offers possible interpretations, intending to alleviate suffering and encourage flourishing by identifying risk and protective factors. Full article

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23 pages, 405 KB

Open AccessArticle

Malāmat and the Ethics of Invisibility: Mysticism, Poetic Witnessing, and Moral Critique in Late Modernity

by Mahmut Esat Harmancı and Meriç Harmancı

Religions 2026, 17(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040481 - 14 Apr 2026

Abstract

This article reconceptualizes malāmat not as a marginal Sufi discipline but as a distinct ethical paradigm that redefines the relationship between selfhood, action, and moral legitimacy. Situating the discussion within late-modern conditions shaped by technological mediation, algorithmic evaluation, and regimes of visibility, it [...] Read more.

This article reconceptualizes malāmat not as a marginal Sufi discipline but as a distinct ethical paradigm that redefines the relationship between selfhood, action, and moral legitimacy. Situating the discussion within late-modern conditions shaped by technological mediation, algorithmic evaluation, and regimes of visibility, it argues that ethical value has increasingly been externalized through performance, recognition, and quantifiable outputs. Against this background, malāmat is examined as an alternative ethical model grounded in inward vigilance, relational practice, and the deliberate concealment of virtue. Drawing on early Malāmatī texts—particularly al-Sulamī—and their later elaboration in Ibn Arabī, the study demonstrates that ethical subjectivity is constituted through continuous self-critique and responsibility before the Divine rather than through public validation. The argument is further developed through a comparative engagement with Aristotle, Kant, Kierkegaard, and MacIntyre. It shows that, unlike these frameworks, malāmat sustains ethical life as an ongoing tension rather than a state of equilibrium or a universalizable norm. The article also highlights the role of classical Turkish and Persian poetry—especially Fuzûlî, Nâbî, and Şeyh Gâlib—in articulating malāmat as a lived ethical sensibility. Ultimately, the study proposes malāmat as a critical counter-model to contemporary regimes of visibility, offering an ethics grounded in inwardness, concealment, and irreducible personal responsibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mysticism and Ethics: Bridging Transcendence and Action in Religious Experience)

16 pages, 559 KB

Open AccessArticle

Landscapes Beyond the Polis: Dwelling at the Limits in Ancient Greek Tragedy

by Di Yan

Religions 2026, 17(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040480 - 14 Apr 2026

Abstract

This article examines how ancient Greek tragedy mobilizes landscape to reflect on the limits of civic order and the conditions of human dwelling. Rather than treating mountains, groves, meadows, and borderlands as neutral settings or as simple “nature/culture” oppositions, it argues that tragic [...] Read more.

This article examines how ancient Greek tragedy mobilizes landscape to reflect on the limits of civic order and the conditions of human dwelling. Rather than treating mountains, groves, meadows, and borderlands as neutral settings or as simple “nature/culture” oppositions, it argues that tragic landscapes are ethically charged spaces where human norms meet forces that exceed political regulation—divine presence, necessity, vulnerability, and finitude. Written for the polis yet unsettled by what lies beyond it, tragedy repeatedly turns to extra-civic spaces to test civic stability. Three case studies develop the argument. In Hippolytus, woodland and meadow sustain an ideal of purity grounded in withdrawal, an orientation incompatible with social life and culminating in catastrophic isolation. In Bacchae, Pentheus’ project of spatial control collapses as Dionysian forces traverse walls and institutions with ease, exposing the limits of civic rationality. In Oedipus Tyrannus and Oedipus at Colonus, the tragic trajectory moves from Mount Cithaeron, a site of abandonment and opaque necessity, to the sacred grove at Colonus, where prolonged suffering enables a transformed relation to place, law, and divine power. Taken together, these plays suggest that the polis is never fully self-sufficient: civic order endures only through engagement with what it cannot master or expel, and spatial orientation is inseparable from ethical choice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landscape (山水) as Transcendent Existence)

28 pages, 5167 KB

Open AccessArticle

Discipline, Punishment, and Buddhist Chaplaincy at Lüshun Prison During Japan’s Colonial Rule, 1905–1945

by Fang Liu, Yijiang Zhong and Guodong Yang

Religions 2026, 17(4), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040479 - 14 Apr 2026

Abstract

This paper draws on Michel Foucault’s analysis of disciplinary power to examine the history of penal punishment and Buddhist chaplaincy at Lüshun Prison in Dalian during Japan’s colonial rule (1905–1945). The goal is to call into question the dominant understanding of Japanese prison [...] Read more.

This paper draws on Michel Foucault’s analysis of disciplinary power to examine the history of penal punishment and Buddhist chaplaincy at Lüshun Prison in Dalian during Japan’s colonial rule (1905–1945). The goal is to call into question the dominant understanding of Japanese prison system as simply an apparatus of naked colonial oppression by exploring the contradictions and limitations in the penitentiary system of Japan as an empire and a modern nation-state. The research is based on official prison documents, True Pure Land Buddhist Honganji sect archival sources, local Chinese publications, oral testimonies from the 2000s, interviews with descendants, and fieldwork at Lüshun Prison. The first part introduces the history of Lüshun Prison and the second explains the prison as a modern criminal justice institution embodying the Benthamian panopticon principle and modern disciplinary power. The third part examines the brutal corporeal punishment at Lüshun Prison and explores how the prison combined deliberate strategies of disciplining manipulation with bodily punishment to (re)create disciplined and subjected individuals. The fourth and fifth parts focus on Buddhist chaplaincy at Lüshun Prison as a disciplining practice. The fourth considers the limits of Buddhist chaplaincy by showing the depoliticized Buddhist doctrine deployed by chaplains was unable to discipline prisoners as it failed to make them repent and be loyal subjects of imperial Japan. The notion of public good used to justify Buddhist chaplaincy in Japan loses its political meaning when applied to the colonial penitentiary setting of Lüshun Prison. The fifth part further explores this ambiguity in Buddhist chaplaincy by focusing on examining the case of Ahn Jung-geun, the Korean independence activist who assassinated the Japanese statesman Ito Hirobumi and was imprisoned and executed at Lüshun Prison in 1910. Rather than transforming Ahn, prison chaplains ended up being transformed by him. This reversion betrays not just a tension between the private and the public, or the individual and the social, but at the same time a tension between the supposedly homogenized nation-state and the multi-ethnic empire. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Liberalism and the Nation in East Asia)

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27 pages, 498 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Correspondence” (dang 當) and “Cultivating Perfectness” (Yang Zheng 養正): On the Concept of Perfectness (zheng 正) in the Yijing

by Solsar Kong

Religions 2026, 17(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040478 - 13 Apr 2026

Abstract

“Properness, correctness and uprightness” (zheng 正) refers to a common and significant concept in Chinese philosophy. In Chinese philosophical discourse, zheng embodies moral ideals. To date, scholarly attention has focused on compound concepts incorporating zheng, such as “central and zheng” [...] Read more.

“Properness, correctness and uprightness” (zheng 正) refers to a common and significant concept in Chinese philosophy. In Chinese philosophical discourse, zheng embodies moral ideals. To date, scholarly attention has focused on compound concepts incorporating zheng, such as “central and zheng” (zhongzheng 中正), “the position of zheng” (zhengwei 正位), and “make the family in accordance with zheng” (zhengjia 正家), as their research objects. However, the independent philosophical meaning of zheng in the Yijing 易經 remains underexplored. Through etymological research and textual analysis, this study reveals three philosophical dimensions of the Yijing. First, it distinguishes zheng from “in correspondence to” (dang 當). It shows that dang refers to a judgment about physical alignment with time and position in theoretical situations, lacking strong moral force. Second, it argues that zheng in the Yijing originates from a metaphysical concept of a perfect ideal, broadly referring to the ideal perfect way (zheng dao 正道). The Yijing emphasizes the metaphysical level of zheng (in accordance with the perfect way), and possesses zheng as a strong moral binding force for continuing self-improvement. However, zheng does not directly function as the presupposed rationale for moral judgments and choices. Third, it examines the way of cultivating zheng (yang zheng zhi dao 養正之道) as a theory of moral cultivation (gongfu 工夫). This practical path, articulated through the hexagrams Meng 蒙 and Yi 頤, is interpreted as a form of purifying the heart/mind (xin 心) to align with the cosmic heart/mind. The study demonstrates that the moral source and moral cultivation process in the Yijing refers to a theory of “cultivating one’s heart/mind (xin 心) through practice”. It provides a perspective for understanding the moral perfectness, heart/mind and morality in the Yijing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Yijing's Cosmology–Divination–Ethics Continuum: The Sacred Intercourse of Yin-Yang and the Manifestation of Tian-Di)

24 pages, 12548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Producing Krishna’s Abode in Times of Climate Change: ISKCON-Ecological Imagination in Krishna Valley (Hungary)

by Deborah D. C. de Koning

Religions 2026, 17(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040477 - 11 Apr 2026

Abstract

This article investigates the relevance of selected and adapted representations of Krishna from the broader ISKCON tradition for sustainable and self-sufficient practices within Krishna Valley. Krishna Valley is an ISKCON community established in 1993 in the remote areas of Hungary, and it covers [...] Read more.

This article investigates the relevance of selected and adapted representations of Krishna from the broader ISKCON tradition for sustainable and self-sufficient practices within Krishna Valley. Krishna Valley is an ISKCON community established in 1993 in the remote areas of Hungary, and it covers 300 hectares. As a self-sufficient and sustainable community, it is part of the Global Environmental Network, and as an ISKCON community, it belongs to the global movement of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. The synchronic interconnections of Krishna Valley as an ecovillage and as a religious place intertwine in the same place. In this article, Krishna Valley serves as an explanatory case study to investigate the relevance of ISKCON religious representations for ecological imagination: the process of perceiving relationships through the use of metaphors, images, narratives, symbols, and sematic frames that are central to and constitutive of human ecological thinking. This study uses two units of analysis (cow service and water management) to explore how in Krishna Valley ecological imagination takes shape in the interaction between local sustainable and self-sufficient practices and specific religious representations that are part of the ISKCON tradition. By looking at how the community interprets and treats cows and water pollution from a religious and environmental perspective, this case study answers the question of how ecovillages might benefit from religion-based ecological imagination for their sustainable livelihoods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Eco-Spirituality: Intersections of Faith, Nature, and Ethics)

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26 pages, 533 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Early Attempt at Sino-Western Intellectual Dialogue: A Historical Study of Translation of Texts on Logic by Western Missionaries at the Turn of Ming–Qing Dynasties

by Shengbing Gao and Yuhang Li

Religions 2026, 17(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040476 - 11 Apr 2026

Abstract

During the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the introduction of Western scientific knowledge to China, facilitated by Western missionaries, included logic as a critical element of Western philosophy and scientific culture. This concept was translated, interpreted, and disseminated, carrying both academic contribution [...] Read more.

During the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the introduction of Western scientific knowledge to China, facilitated by Western missionaries, included logic as a critical element of Western philosophy and scientific culture. This concept was translated, interpreted, and disseminated, carrying both academic contribution and a historical mission of cultural integration and intellectual enlightenment. The development of the Chinese conceptualization of logic mirrors the intricate process of cultural negotiation and conceptual accommodation between Chinese and Western intellectual traditions. This process went beyond simple terminology translation, representing a significant epistemological shift that introduced into traditional Chinese thought a mode of systematic reasoning previously underdeveloped in the indigenous scholarly tradition. Unlike the systematic formalization of logic in the Western tradition, logical reflection in classical Chinese culture took different forms without coalescing into a comparable systematic field. This paper finds that the introduction of Western logic, with its emphasis on formal deduction and systematic reasoning, constituted an early but significant encounter that contributed to the longer-term transformation of Chinese philosophical discourse in three aspects: it introduced a cognition-centered methodological framework that offered an alternative to the ethically oriented traditional Chinese concepts; it provided intellectual resources that encouraged a gradual shift from purely moral speculation toward incorporating empirical investigation and logical demonstration; and it laid the essential conceptual groundwork for the eventual establishment of logic as a modern academic discipline in China. Collectively, these translated texts and concepts introduced new conceptual possibilities into the Chinese intellectual landscape, contributing over time to a gradual shift from prioritizing moral introspection and analogical reasoning toward increasingly valuing empirical investigation, formal demonstration, and systematic argumentation. Ultimately, the translation of logic was not a passive reception but an active intellectual engagement that introduced new conceptual possibilities into Chinese philosophical discourse, contributing over time to a broader reorientation toward rationality and systematicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

20 pages, 301 KB

Open AccessReview

A Contemporary Approach to Spiritual and Theological Reflection from the Perspective of Kahneman’s System Thinking

by Julie Robertson, Sehrish Haroon, Thomas St. James O’Connor and Jeffrey Dale

Religions 2026, 17(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040475 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

This article explores Daniel Kahneman’s concept of system thinking from his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2013) in the context of contemporary spiritual and theological reflection. The question studied here is: What does the intentional use of emotions, dreams and intuition described by [...] Read more.

This article explores Daniel Kahneman’s concept of system thinking from his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2013) in the context of contemporary spiritual and theological reflection. The question studied here is: What does the intentional use of emotions, dreams and intuition described by Daniel Kahneman as System 1 thinking look like in contemporary spiritual and theological reflection? According to Kanheman, System 1 thinking includes emotions, dreams and intuition. The method for answering the research question is hermeneutical. This means gathering texts that fit Kahneman’s description of System 1 thinking and integrating these concepts into some form of spiritual and theological reflection. Hermeneutical research is text-based. Fifty-three (53) texts were found in a search of various databases. These texts are analyzed noting the impact of System 1 thinking on spiritual and theological reflection. Findings include the following: First, there is a rise in the number of texts using System 1 thinking in spiritual and theological reflection. Second, disciplines outside of theology are practicing spiritual reflection as part of their spiritual care. Third, these non-theological disciplines are also using System 1 thinking in their spiritual reflections. Fourth, there is an awareness and utilization of diverse cultures and faith experiences in spiritual reflection. Fifth, these texts indicate the growth of the demographic of people who are spiritual but not religious and a connection to dreams, emotions and intuition in spiritual and theological reflection. Sixth, there is also a developing overlap between spiritual and theological reflection. Cautions and gaps in the textual analysis are noted as well as future applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Challenges in Pastoral Psychology)

25 pages, 595 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Socio-Religious Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Desmond Mpilo Tutu, as a Possible Inspiration for the Post-Genocide Rwanda

by Celestin Ntaganira

Religions 2026, 17(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040474 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

Rwanda has experienced the tragedy of conflict and hatred based on what was politically created as ethnicity. That bad condition grew in history with the post-colonial leaders and produced the genocide of the Tutsi population in the country in 1994. Currently, there is [...] Read more.

Rwanda has experienced the tragedy of conflict and hatred based on what was politically created as ethnicity. That bad condition grew in history with the post-colonial leaders and produced the genocide of the Tutsi population in the country in 1994. Currently, there is no open violence in Rwanda, but there are some significant elements of socio-religious crisis that are consequences of the recent past, genocide, and war. Therefore, in this article, the effort is made to examine what has been done in Society and the Catholic Church, to which 44% of Rwandans religiously belong, and what the weak points are in the Church and the State’s reconciliation efforts, that could be improved by inspiration through the concept of reconciliation of Desmond Mpilo Tutu. To carry on this research, this study adopts a comparative and hermeneutic method where the various sources on the Rwandan journey in forgiveness and reconciliation are analysed, and then, the forgiveness and reconciliation work of Desmond Mpilo Tutu. The meeting of two contexts shows that both victims and perpetrators need the restoration of their humanity and dignity, but also that there is “no future without forgiveness”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Justice in Theological Education: Challenges and Opportunities)

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17 pages, 966 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forming Conscience: Bioethics Literacy Among Catholic Seminary Students in Colombia

by Edison Mosquera, Marcelino Pérez-Bermejo, Miriam Martínez-Peris and María Teresa Murillo-Llorente

Religions 2026, 17(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040473 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

Bioethics education has become established as an essential component for addressing the ethical challenges associated with biomedical development, biotechnology, and decision-making in the healthcare field. Although numerous studies have analyzed the teaching of bioethics among medical students and other health professions, empirical research [...] Read more.

Bioethics education has become established as an essential component for addressing the ethical challenges associated with biomedical development, biotechnology, and decision-making in the healthcare field. Although numerous studies have analyzed the teaching of bioethics among medical students and other health professions, empirical research on bioethics literacy in religious formation contexts remains limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the level of bioethical knowledge (here operationalized as bioethics literacy) among Catholic seminarians in Colombia and to explore the psychometric properties of a questionnaire designed to measure bioethics literacy in this population. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted through the administration of a structured questionnaire consisting of 32 multiple-choice items with a single correct answer addressing philosophical foundations, personalist bioethics, bioethical principles, clinical bioethics, and issues related to biotechnology. A total of 216 complete questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics and exploratory psychometric analyses, including item difficulty and discrimination, internal consistency, and exploratory factor analysis. The results showed a moderate overall level of bioethics literacy, with better performance in applied domains such as clinical bioethics and bioethical principles, and lower levels of correct responses in philosophical foundations and personalist bioethics. The questionnaire showed moderate internal consistency and a preliminary factorial structure, suggesting its usefulness as an exploratory tool for assessing bioethical knowledge in seminary educational contexts. These results highlight the importance of strengthening the integration between philosophical and theological education and the applied analysis of bioethical problems in seminary educational programs. Full article

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29 pages, 643 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tang Dynasty Daoist Diversity: Immortal Daoism as an Offshoot in Li Bai’s Era

by Qin Yu

Religions 2026, 17(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040472 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

The mainstream Daoism of the Tang Dynasty was the Highest Clarity Tradition, a paradigmatic form of Medieval Daoism. Meanwhile, the existence of Immortal Daoism, as an offshoot, can be regarded as an undercurrent of Tang Dynasty Daoism, embodying the historical diversity of Daoism [...] Read more.

The mainstream Daoism of the Tang Dynasty was the Highest Clarity Tradition, a paradigmatic form of Medieval Daoism. Meanwhile, the existence of Immortal Daoism, as an offshoot, can be regarded as an undercurrent of Tang Dynasty Daoism, embodying the historical diversity of Daoism during this period. As a paradigmatic figure among Tang Dynasty literati, Li Bai had religious beliefs and practices deeply imbued with Immortal Daoist concepts. His practices centered on three core elements: questing for the immortal realm in untamed mountain landscapes, cultivating spiritual essence through reclusive seclusion, and asserting a strong self-identity as an “ostracized transcendent.” A comparative analysis of works of the same genre reveals that Li Bai’s pursuit of Daoism centered on leaving this mortal coil as a transcendent, whereas the ultimate goal of Medieval Daoist postulants was “Dedao” (to achieve perfect harmony with the Dao). When interacting with such priests, Li Bai would actively adopt the terminology of Daoist scriptures to align with their perspectives and even visit Daoist monasteries for tangible benefits. In his personal writings, he favored imagery associated with Immortal Daoism. Li Bai’s preference for Immortal Daoism not only resolves long-standing academic debates concerning his relationship with Daoism but also stands as a concrete manifestation of the variety of Daoism in the Tang Dynasty, thereby providing a multi-dimensional perspective for the study of Daoist history. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)

29 pages, 1206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chalice of Salvation: Historical, Symbolic, and Phenomenological Reflections on Communion with the Blood of Christ

by Christopher M. O’Brien

Religions 2026, 17(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040471 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

In many parishes, lay communion from the chalice ceased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has yet to return. This article summarizes the historical development of practice and theology regarding the chalice and proposes a symbolic and phenomenological account of communion with the blood [...] Read more.

In many parishes, lay communion from the chalice ceased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has yet to return. This article summarizes the historical development of practice and theology regarding the chalice and proposes a symbolic and phenomenological account of communion with the blood of Christ. The practice of lay communion from the chalice in Western Christianity has gone through several distinct phases. From early Christianity into the medieval period, lay reception from the chalice was practiced regularly. In the twelfth century, the practice ceased due to increased focus on Christ’s real presence in the consecrated elements and increased fear of dropping or spilling Christ’s body and blood on the ground. The doctrine of concomitance arose to explain that in exceptional circumstances where communion was possible under only one species, communicants still received Christ whole and entire. Later, concomitance was used to support the practice of withholding the chalice from the laity, which lasted from the twelfth century until Vatican II. Without challenging the Council of Trent’s pronouncement that communion under both species is not required for salvation, this article argues that communion under both species maximizes the multivalent symbolism and the phenomenological experience of eucharistic communion for sacramental participants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Eucharist as the Bread of Life: Phenomenological and Existential Explorations)

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29 pages, 24667 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tomb Rituals in Han Dynasty Pictorial Stone Reliefs: Depictions of Historical Figures

by Shaohua Duan, Xiaoyang Wang and Yanli Cao

Religions 2026, 17(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040470 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

Archaeological reports show that about 70% of Han dynasty pictorial stone sites feature historical figures, revealing a significant yet understudied aspect of tomb ritual practice (muji yishi). This study examines how these depictions may reflect ritual characteristics and their relationship to [...] Read more.

Archaeological reports show that about 70% of Han dynasty pictorial stone sites feature historical figures, revealing a significant yet understudied aspect of tomb ritual practice (muji yishi). This study examines how these depictions may reflect ritual characteristics and their relationship to temple ritual practice (miaoji yishi). From the Qin to Han period (221 BCE–220 CE), tomb and temple rituals increasingly converged; temple rituals were sometimes performed by tombs, and the imagery incorporated cosmological models alongside representations of daily life, including clothing, diet, dwellings, and mobility. The historical figures depicted can be grouped into three categories: emperors and sages, loyal ministers and righteous heroes, and filial sons and chaste women. These figures were closely associated with ideals of transcendence and immortality, suggesting a ritual framework that connected temple and tomb practices, with emperors and sages appearing most frequently, accounting for about 80% of the depictions. Notably, these images occur predominantly in commoners’ tombs (approximately 95%), where fewer social restrictions may have allowed greater creative freedom. While research on tomb ritual practices has traditionally relied on textual sources, the present study emphasizes archaeological evidence, offering an analytical perspective on the relationship between temple and tomb rituals in Han funeral art and highlighting their potential role in shaping Han ritual logic and religious expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Temple Art, Architecture and Theatre)

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16 pages, 237 KB

Open AccessArticle

Re-Imagining Religion Along Postsecular Lines in Sub-Saharan Africa

by Donald Mark C. Ude

Religions 2026, 17(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040469 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

Religion continues to exert a far-reaching influence on politics in sub-Saharan Africa. This influence is ambivalent, in that it carries significant promise while simultaneously posing serious contemporary challenges. Although there is nothing essentially problematic about religion—which indeed shapes social morality and nurtures solidarity—certain [...] Read more.

Religion continues to exert a far-reaching influence on politics in sub-Saharan Africa. This influence is ambivalent, in that it carries significant promise while simultaneously posing serious contemporary challenges. Although there is nothing essentially problematic about religion—which indeed shapes social morality and nurtures solidarity—certain abuses grounded in faith traditions nonetheless have deleterious political and economic ramifications. The unwholesome aspects of religion are unsustainable and call for a re-thinking of the place of religion in sub-Saharan Africa today. The objective of this article is to propose postsecularity as a viable conceptual framework for re-imagining religion in sub-Saharan Africa. This postsecular framework acknowledges the socio-political value of religion, while delineating normative guardrails for a responsible practice of religion. Drawing on theorizations of the postsecular in the works of Habermas and other relevant thinkers, the article contends that the postsecular framework holds out a promise of political and economic stability for the sub-continent, ceteris paribus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

25 pages, 567 KB

Open AccessArticle

Operationalizing Higher Ethical Objectives: Piety, Ethics, and Institutional Practice in Pakistan’s Islamic Financial Sector

by Shafiullah Jan, Ali Abdullah and Naeem Muzafar

Religions 2026, 17(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040468 - 9 Apr 2026

Abstract

As a developing and evolving phenomenon, Islamic finance is continuously questioned regarding its performance and efficiency, especially in the context of higher ethical objectives, also termed as maqasid al Shariah, to achieve falah by practicing ihsan. A vast group of researchers [...] Read more.

As a developing and evolving phenomenon, Islamic finance is continuously questioned regarding its performance and efficiency, especially in the context of higher ethical objectives, also termed as maqasid al Shariah, to achieve falah by practicing ihsan. A vast group of researchers has measured the unsatisfactory performance of Islamic financial institutions against the maqasid al Shariah, reflecting their convergence with capitalist systems. This raises a question of whether the Islamic finance industry interprets the concept of maqasid al Shariah the same way as academia and whether they assign maqasid al Shariah the same high level of relevance and importance. This study explores how the practitioners of the Islamic banking industry in Pakistan understands and implement maqasid al Shariah in practice. Adopting a qualitative, multiple-case approach, it draws on 20 in-depth narrative interviews with Islamic bankers and Shariah scholars. The findings of the research suggest ten different perspectives of practitioners, which they hold regarding maqasid al Shariah. They are (1) public welfare (maslahah), (2) business motives alongside banks do not consider maqasid al Shariah as their responsibility, (3) wrong interpretation and wrong evaluation of Islamic institutions on maqasid, (4) new industry and over expectation from the industry, (5) justice/equity (‘adl/ihsan), (6) bankers consider auto inclusion of maqasid al Shariah in every transaction, (7) prevention from prohibitions and provisioning of halal options, (8) Shariah compliance, (9) more focus on protection of wealth (10) maqasid are not divine and are man-made interpretations. These findings contribute to developing more effective performance measurement frameworks for the industry in the future and can compel both regulators and practitioners to consider comprehensive objectives of Shariah in product development rather than focusing merely on compliance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piety and Ethical Foundations in Islamic Moral Economy)

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10 pages, 180 KB

Open AccessArticle

Belonging to God: Karl Barth and the Value of Daily Work

by David Hadley Jensen

Religions 2026, 17(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040467 - 8 Apr 2026

Abstract

This essay explores Karl Barth’s understanding of daily work in Church Dogmatics in light of his understanding of Christian vocation. Because Barth is responding to post-Reformation developments in the understanding of work, this essay begins with a typological survey of Christian understandings of [...] Read more.

This essay explores Karl Barth’s understanding of daily work in Church Dogmatics in light of his understanding of Christian vocation. Because Barth is responding to post-Reformation developments in the understanding of work, this essay begins with a typological survey of Christian understandings of vocation and how the language of vocation gets reduced to work in the modern period. I next examine how Barth’s theology recovers important themes of earlier views of vocation, while it also offers critiques of capitalist and state socialist views of work and workers. The essay concludes with a brief contrast between Barth’s own work habits and his celebration of Mozart’s work, a contrast that offers a window through which one might view “good work” in our day. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reformed Theology in Dialogue: Faith, Culture, and Everyday Practice)

17 pages, 246 KB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Heritage and the Governance of Living Sacred Space: A Multi-Religious Perspective

by Kyungjin Chae

Religions 2026, 17(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17040466 - 8 Apr 2026

Abstract

Religious heritage occupies a distinctive position at the intersection of sacred practice and cultural governance. While existing scholarship often interprets conflicts surrounding religious heritage through value pluralism or sacred–secular opposition, less attention has been paid to how heritagization reshapes religion within regulatory regimes. [...] Read more.

Religious heritage occupies a distinctive position at the intersection of sacred practice and cultural governance. While existing scholarship often interprets conflicts surrounding religious heritage through value pluralism or sacred–secular opposition, less attention has been paid to how heritagization reshapes religion within regulatory regimes. Drawing on 39 in-depth interviews conducted across Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant, and Confucian contexts in South Korea, this article examines how religious practitioners and heritage experts conceptualize living religious heritage and negotiate governance structures. The findings demonstrate that stakeholders frequently challenge the binary opposition. Instead, they articulate a relational continuum in which ritual continuity sustains heritage significance and historical depth legitimizes religious practice. Tensions arise primarily from regulatory rigidity, fragmented institutional authority, and procedural exclusion rather than doctrinal incompatibility. Heritage designation emerges as an institutional process that contributes to reconfiguring religious authority, spatial control, and public legitimacy within secular administrative frameworks. By conceptualizing religious heritage governance as a site of negotiated rearticulation rather than value conflict, this study contributes to debates on sacred–secular entanglement, religion and governance, and the institutional reshaping of religion in contemporary societies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religions and Society: Between Navigating Secularism and Lived Religion)

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