Periodization, Functions and Impacts: Nineteenth-Century Chinese Periodicals by Protestant Missionaries

Abstract

The 19th century witnessed an upsurge of periodicals in China, among which the Chinese newspapers and periodicals by Protestant missionaries were of profound impact. This paper begins with a chronological division of Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals, highlighting the most memorable and influential titles, and analyzes the three-phase development of initiation, development and transformation within the broader sociohistorical context. Additionally, the study explores their evolutionary instrumental functions in terms of content and readership, ranging from the handmaid of religion, the bridge of eastern–western cultures to the carrier of diverse knowledge and the manipulator of politics. This shows that the knowledge selected and translated by Protestant missionaries functioned as a dynamic tool in adaptation to historicized requirements. Ultimately, the study argues that these periodicals served as an enlightener of Chinese minds, a promoter of Chinese press and a facilitator of China’s sociopolitical revolution, advancing religious communication, knowledge dissemination and political reform in China during the contemporary and subsequent eras.

1. Introduction

“Protestants entered China in 1807” (Marty 1986, p. 387), which indicated that China’s wall against Protestant Christianity remained intact until the pioneering Protestant missionary Robert Morrison (1792–1834) made his entry into China in that year. Subsequently, successive waves of Protestant missionaries initiated their evangelistic efforts, engaging in diverse activities such as translating and compiling gospel books, establishing printing industries to facilitate publication and founding translation and publishing institutions. So while Morrison “was not the father of Chinese Protestantism, he was certainly midwife at its birth” (Hancock 2008, p. 6). Consequently, their activities in China have attracted scholarly attention within the domain of religious studies with emphasis on either individual prominent Protestant missionaries (Rudolph 1940; Bohr 1972; Bennett 1983; Lazich 2000), or on Protestantism as a whole (Wylie 1867; McIntosh 1895; Latourette 1929; Gu 1981; Fairbank 1985; Hutchison 1987; Rubinstein 1996; L. Wang 1997; Y. Wu 2000; Vishnevskaya 2022; Liu and Ye 2024; Li et al. 2024a). Additionally, Western scholars have analyzed the characteristics and impacts of Protestant missionary periodicals through comprehensive theoretical frameworks (Cohen 1978; Harris 1991; Ru 2000; De Giorgi 2001; Yang 2002; Jensz 2013; Klein 2013; Katz 2014; Zaeri 2019). Meanwhile, Chinese scholars have placed greater emphasis on their translation activities, as the “act of translation by Protestant missionaries was also a strategic religious intervention” (Y. Wang 2025, p. 1156). Their translation activities were the focus of scholarly inquiry of various perspectives, encompassing the 19th century Protestant missionaries’ translation of Chinese classics (Duan 2019; Zhou et al. 2019; Liu and Zou 2022), the multi-faceted roles of missionaries as translators, gospelers and sinologists (Hao Wang 2019b; Li and Gao 2025), their translation strategies (Li and Hu 2015; He and Deng 2016) and the translation and dissemination of Western knowledge into China across disciplines such as economics (D. Li 2011), medical sciences (Gao 2018), meteorology (Hao Wang 2019a), mechanics (Su 2022), natural history (K. Li 2023) and physics (Li and Fu 2025).

“The growth in nineteenth-century evangelical Protestant missionary endeavors was reflected in increased numbers of missionary specific periodicals.” (Barringer 2002, p. 169) This growth correlates with the acceleration of translation activities, which necessitated improved dissemination channels within the modern Chinese press. “The earlier Catholic missionaries in China had published books and tracts but not periodicals” (Britton 1933, p. 17). In other words, Catholicism adhered to “apostolate through books” (Shujichuanjiao 書籍傳教) (Li et al. 2024b); however, it was the Protestant missionaries coming to China in the 19th century that turned their attention to the press as an important means to reach the Chinese. This strategic shift was driven by several factors, notably the rapid spread of newspapers and magazines in the 19th century as a new “cultural regime” for their practicality and cost-effectiveness as well as expanding readership (Hoeven et al. 2023). Additionally, roughly ten percent of Protestant missionaries were trained professionals (Walls 1996), recognized as missionary-scholars, who integrated cultural proselytization by introducing Western science, literature and educational practices alongside religious teachings. Periodical publications offered a well-framed platform for these diversified initiatives, leading to a surge in missionary presses producing both English and Chinese periodicals during the 19th century. This development has garnered extensive scholarly interest within press history studies (Ge 1927; G. Jiang 1927; Britton 1933; Fang 1981; Zhuo 2002; Zhao and Wu 2011). Beyond the general history of the Chinese press, scholarly focus has increasingly turned to the influence of Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals. Studies have examined the overall impact of missionary publications (Wang and He 2015; Tian 2016; J. Jiang 2019) with particular attention paid to pioneering periodicals such as the first missionary Chinese journal of Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine)1 (Cheng 2000; Zhang 2015), the representative of the shifting focus of the missionary Chinese journal of Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine)2 (Luo 2008; Ai 2011), and the concluding journal of the 19th century, Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times)3 (Zhou 2005; X. Liu 2010; Jiang and Zhu 2020). However, in comparison with missionaries’ evangelical and translational activities, their participation, contribution and influence within Chinese society seems to “have long languished under the disinterested gaze of academics” (Jensz and Acke 2013, p. 369).

This study, out of consideration of unraveling the complexities of press activities of Protestant missionaries in the 19th century, employs the methods of historical analysis, close textual reading and comparative methods to explore the Chinese periodicals launched by Protestant missionaries during that specific period. The historical analysis situates these periodicals within their sociohistorical contexts, elucidating their evolution across different periods. Close textual reading interprets shifts in their functions over time, while comparative analysis reveals divergences in intentions, strategies and targeted readership, illustrating their societal impacts amid changing circumstances. The research aims to address three core questions: (1) What key events demarcate the different developmental stages of Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals in the 19th century? (2) What instrumental roles did these periodicals play within the Chinese historical and social landscape? (3) What transformative impacts did they exert? Ultimately, this study seeks to demonstrate that the Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals performed diverse functions and positively contributed to China’s development and reform process.

2. Periodization of the 19th Century Protestant Missionary Chinese Periodicals

There has been no definitive conclusion on the chronological delineation of missionary journalism in China. Chinese journalism scholars tend to regard missionary newspapers and periodicals as a discrete historical phase, whereas scholars in religious studies prefer to contextualize them within the broader framework of Protestant and Catholic evangelization efforts, often overlooking their independent journalistic development (Hai Wang 2012). To achieve a more precise understanding of their distinctive features and developmental trajectories across different epochs, this research categorizes the historiography of Protestant missionary journalism in China based on significant historical events and the evolution of key periodicals. An analysis of the Chinese periodicals founded and operated by Protestant missionaries during the 19th century identifies the principal representative publications (see

Table 1. Major Chinese periodicals by Protestant missionaries in China during the 19th Century (listed by their English Names).

No.	Title of the Journal	Founder/Editor	Place	Time
1	Chinese Monthly Magazine	William Milne	Malacca	1815–1821
2	A Monthly Record of Important Selections	Walter Henry Medhurst	Batavia	1823–1826
3	Universal Gazette	Samuel Kidd	Malacca	1828–1829
4	Eastern Western Monthly Magazine	Charles Gutzlaff	Guangzhou	1833–1837
5	Chinese Serial	Walter Henry Medhurst, James Legge, Charles Batten Hillier	Hongkong	1853–1856
6	Chinese and Foreign Gazette	Daniel Jerome Macgowan	Ningbo	1854–1861
7	Shanghai Serial	Alexander Wylie	Shanghai	1861–1872
8	Chinese Foreign Weekly	John Chalmers	Guangzhou	1865–1868
9	The Globe Magazine/ The Review of the Times	Young John Allen	Shanghai	1874–1907
10	Chinese and Foreign Magazine	W.A.P. Martine, Joseph Edkins	Peking	1872–1875
11	The Child’s Paper	John M.W. Farnham	Shanghai	1875–1915
12	Chinese Scientific Magazine	John Fryer	Shanghai	1876–1892

). Considering both the journalistic and religious developments during the nineteenth century, the Protestant missionary Chinese journals can be segmented into three successive phases: the initiation phase, the development phase and the transformation phase.

2.1. The Initiation Phase (1815–1837): The Ultra-Ganges Missions and Early Periodical Publications

Although Robert Morrison, recognized as the pioneer Protestant missionary and a founder of the modern Chinese periodicals, played a crucial role, his efforts were supported by the London Missionary Society (LMS), whose “sole object was to spread the knowledge of Christ among heathen and other unenlightened nations” (Lovett 1899, p. 30). In 1815, Morrison and Milne submitted resolutions to the LMS concerning The Ultra-Ganges Missions (Milne 1820, pp. 137–39), which marked “the first missionary attempt in China and the adjacent nations” (Lin 2022, p. 393) and mirrored “a microcosmic replica of the LMS administration in London” (Daily 2013, p. 162). They were engaged in establishing a base in Malacca, founding a free Chinese school, targeting Chinese populations within the Malacca mission, translating and publishing Chinese Bible editions, conducting religious services in China and publishing a monthly Chinese magazine later known as Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine). Both Morrison and Milne emphasized that the magazine should be both instructive and entertaining. Although published in Malacca, its intended audience was the Chinese community. Milne, in particular, tailored its content to the Chinese taste, exemplified by the motto on each issue’s cover: “The Master said: Hear much; choose the good, and emulate it.” (Ziyue duowen zeqi shanzhe er congzhi 子曰：多聞擇其善者而從之).

In 1822, Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine) was obliged to cease publication due to the death of Milne. To preserve its legacy, Walter Henry Medhurst (1796–1857), who had assisted Milne with printing and publication, launched Texuan cuoyao meiyue jizhuan 特選撮要每月紀傳 (A Monthly Record of Important Selections) in Batavia in 1823. The new journal maintained the similar style and format, with its cover inscribed as follows: “The Master said: They simply uttered each his own aspirations (Ziyue yi geyan qizhi ye yiyi 子曰：亦各言其志也已矣)”. The publication ceased in 1826. As for the reason, Medhurst made no explanation, but it was surmised that its suspension might have been the result of his being overextended (Zhuo 2002, p. 39), for he began to devote himself to the lexicographical work.

In 1828, Samuel Kidd (1799–1843) launched Tianxia xinwen 天下新聞 (Universal Gazette) in Malacca, which lasted approximately one year before ceasing publication in December 1829 upon Kidd’s return to Britain. Subsequently, in 1833, the Prussian missionary Karl Freidrich August Gutzlaff (1803–1851) established Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine) in Guangzhou. Its cover featured the maxim: “The Master said: He who gives no thought to remote matters will encounter grief near him (Ziyue renwu yuanlv, biyou jinyou 子曰：人无远虑，必有近忧)”. This publication was the first missionary journal based within China’s interior and inherited the characteristics of its predecessors.

Overall, the periodicals by Protestant missionaries during this initial phase were integral components of the Ultra-Ganges Missions. They operated outside China but were aimed at Chinese readership, adopting similar stylistic and structural conventions, though their publication runs were relatively short-lived.

2.2. The Development Phase (1853–1868): Post-Opium War Treaties and Upsurge of Periodicals

In the wake of the initial phase spanning 1838 to 1852, the Chinese missionary periodicals faced stagnation due to resistance from the Chinese populace, who were constrained by Qing government’s religious policies4 restricting foreign missionary activities and favoring the dissemination methods of imperial gazettes. It was only after the establishment of the treaty system after the Opium War that Western missionaries resumed their journalistic endeavors in Shanghai, catalyzing a proliferation of Chinese periodicals.

In the aftermath of the Opium War, the Qing state encountered by Protestant missionaries was described as “weakened and humiliated” (A. Wu 2013, p. 397). The Sino–U.S. Treaty of Wanghia, signed on 3 July 1844, in Article 17, permitted Americans to establish churches in the five treaty ports, signifying a relaxation of the Qing government’s religious restrictions and partial abdication of China’s religious sovereignty. This treaty marked the Qing government’s formal acknowledgement of the legitimacy of Christian missionary activities within China’s interior. Then the 1858 Sino–French Treaty of Tientsin reaffirmed the relevant provision and added a specific clause in Article 13, granting believers of Catholicism the freedom to gather, worship and recite scriptures, with lawful practitioners facing no prohibitions or penalties. This clause facilitated the entry and preaching of Catholic missionaries into China’s interior and effectively repealed the prohibition against Catholicism. Currently, the unilateral most-favored-nation treatment clause in these treaties enabled foreign powers to invoke reciprocal rights, further dismantling restrictions on Christianity.

As Shanghai substituted Guangzhou as a central coastal hub, it turned into a strategic base for missionaries-led periodical publications, resulting in the launch and management of titles such as Shanghai Serial (Liuhe congtan 六合叢談), Shanghai Gazette (Shanghai xinbao 上海新報), The Globe Magazine (Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報) and Bible News (Shengshu xinbao 聖書新報). Additionally, Chinese Serial (Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍) was established in Hongkong, Chinese Foreign Weekly (Zhongwai xinwen qirilu 中外新聞七日錄) in Guangzhou and Chinese and Foreign Magazine (Zhongxi wenjianlu 中西聞見錄) in Beijing. Among all the periodicals, The Globe Magazine (Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報) (later renamed The Review of the Times), founded by Young John Allen (1836–1907), was the most enduring publication.

Compared to the periodicals of the initial phase, those from this stage exhibited extended publication durations, more diverse content and a deeper impact on Chinese intellectual and cultural spheres.

2.3. The Transformation Phase (1868–1907): Transition Towards Collaboration and Secularization

The Protestant missionary societies in China started to collaborate on periodical publications to secure increased financial support and to further expand their influence. From 10 to 24 May 1877, 142 representatives of 473 Protestant missionaries from 19 societies convened in Shanghai for The General Conference of Missionaries. During this assembly, the proposal for a General Conference of all Protestant Missionaries in China was approved by nearly all attendees. During the Conference, the following was suggested:

Why should not the Great Missionary Societies unite in publishing an entertaining and instructive magazine with woodcuts of places which exist and events that have occurred outside the Middle Kingdom. It would penetrate into the interior, and enkindle a spirit of enquiry, and lead the natives to ask the why and the wherefore of perplexing phenomena in natural history and science. It would tell them of the achievements of western nations in arts and manufactures and gradually extend amongst the millions of the Flowery Land that spirit of intelligent dissatisfaction with the present which when guided aright is the guarantee of all progress, and when neglected the germ of revolution and anarchy. Such a periodical without containing essays on dogmatic theology might be pervaded and suffused with the spirit of our religion, and the reader while fancying himself enamoured of civilization would find himself learning to love Christianity.

(Butcher 1877, p. 275)

This indicated the inclination to convert theological periodicals into publication focused on natural history and science. Subsequently, at the 1890 General Conference, John M. W. Farnham (1830–1917) submitted a report entitled “Christian Literature in China”, which reported that “Previous to 1860 there were eight religious and no secular periodicals”, but now “of the seventy-six on the list, forty are religious and thirty-six secular” and “of the thirty-one still published, fifteen are religious and sixteen are secular” (Farnham 1890, pp. 555–59). Notably, some periodicals, such as Xiaohai yuebao 小孩月報 (Child’s Paper) and Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Globe Magazine, titled as The Review of the Times in English in 1889) both endured for fifteen years.

From these developments, it can be concluded that during the final phase of the 19th century Protestant missionary Chinese periodicals, there was a clear trend toward collaborative efforts and a transition from exclusively religious to more secular content.

In summary, the 19th century marked a period of significant evolution and diversification in Chinese periodicals by Protestant missionaries. In the latter half of the century, Chinese Catholic periodicals emerged, exemplified by the 1872 founding of the French newspaper called Bulletin des Observation Météorologiques. From 1872 to 1911, there were fourteen Catholic periodicals (Peng 2014, p. 57), serving as counterparts to Protestant periodicals. Furthermore, the periodicals by the Chinese gained prominence in the early 20th century amid profound societal transformations. Subject to their dual impact, the Protestant missionary periodicals temporarily declined.

3. Instrumental Functions of the Periodicals Concerned

Now a pertinent question arises: Why did Protestant missionaries dedicate efforts to creating Chinese periodicals? Milne’s own account of his publication provided insight:

It was originally intended that this little publication should combine the diffusion of general knowledge with that of religion and morals; and included such notices of the public events of the day as should appear suited to awaken reflection and excite inquiry. To promote Christianity was to be its primary object; other things, though they were to be treated in subordination to this, were not to be overlooked. Knowledge and science are the hand-maids of religion, and may become the auxiliaries of virtue.

(Milne 1820, p. 154)

From its inception, the first Chinese journal by Protestant missionaries was aimed not merely at religious propagation but also at multiple societal functions. This broader purpose was characteristic of other missionary periodicals as well, though their primary object might shift depending on the prevailing historical and social contexts. Throughout the 19th century, these periodicals evolved from vehicles of religious propagation to instruments of political reforms.

3.1. Handmaid of Religion

Statistical analyses of the content within the pioneering Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine) revealed that over 80 percent of its articles were dedicated to theological exposition and other religion-related topics, with less than 20 percent addressing knowledge of world history, geography, astronomy or accounts of foreign customs and manners (Xiong 1994, p. 106). A glimpse of the index of the inaugural issue demonstrated its evangelistic objective, encompassing Shenli 神理 (Divine Principles), Shengjing zhi dayi 圣经之大义 (The Great Meaning of the Bible), Jiexin yesu zhilun 解信耶稣之论 (On Believing in Jesus), Lun buke baijiashen 论不可拜假神 (On the Prohibition of Worshiping the False Gods) and Lun tiandi wanwu zhi shouzao 论天地万物之受造 (On the Creation of Heaven, Earth, and All Things), all of which centered on Christian doctrine.

Subsequently, Medhurst asserted his role as the successor to Milne’s undertaking and founded Texuan cuoyao meiyue jizhuan 特選撮要每月紀傳 (A Monthly Record of Important Selections). According to the preface, this newly launched periodical was deemed as a continuation of Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine). Despite the change in title, the core principle of prioritizing religious content remained intact. The selected articles in this publication included Shangdi shengri zhi lun 上帝生日之論 (On the Birthday of God), Qishen fa祈神法 (The Method of Praying to God), Shentian shitiao shengjie zhujie 神天十條聖誡注解 (Annotation to the Ten Divine Commandments), Yesu shuzui zhi lun 耶穌贖罪之論 (On the Atonement of Jesus), etc., all highlighting Christian faith.

3.2. Dissemination of Knowledge

Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine) marked a pivotal shift among missionary Chinese periodicals, as its overtly religious tone gradually diminished and the focus transitioned from promoting Christian doctrine to fostering acceptance of Western cultures. Its founder, Charles Gutzlaff (1803–1851), was well-versed in Chinese culture, particularly due to his three voyages along the Chinese coast, which significantly influenced the founding of this magazine. In August 1833, The Chinese Repository published his article in a column of Periodical Magazines, juxtaposing Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine) with the quarterly periodical of The Indo-Chinese Gleaner (Yinzhong souwen 印中搜聞). The article articulated the mission of Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine):

The monthly periodical which is now offered for the patronage of the foreign community of Canton and Macao, is published with a view to counteract these high and exclusive notions, by making the Chinese acquainted with our arts, sciences, and principles. It will not treat of politics, nor tend to exasperate their minds by harsh language upon any subject. There is a more excellent way to show that we are not indeed “barbarian;”, and the Editor prefers the method of exhibiting facts, to convince the Chinese that they have still very much to learn.

(Gutzlaff 1833, p. 186)

This statement indicated a departure of Dongxiyangkao meiyue tongjizhuan 東西洋考每月統記傳 (Eastern Western Monthly Magazine) from the religious focus of earlier periodicals, signaling a transition toward secular concerns. Statistical analysis of the magazine’s content revealed that out of a total of 305 articles, 35 were related to religion, accounting for 11.48 percent of total articles. Conversely, 170 articles, up to 55.74 percent, covered subjects such as history, politics, economy, culture, geography, astronomy, science and zoology. Additionally, news reports comprised 89, representing 29.18 percent of the total (L. Liu 2017, p. 39). The relative reduction of religious content in favor of Western sciences underscores that Christianity, while still an indispensable element, was relegated to a relatively subordinate position, confirming that religious periodicals themselves “set trends in how religion is mediated” (Scheiding and Bassimir 2022, p. 336).

3.3. Bridge of Cultures

In 1853, Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial), was founded in Hongkong following the signature of The Treaty of Nanking. Its preface explicitly articulated its objective as follows:

“吾屢念及此，思於每月依次纂輯貫珍一軼、誠為其善舉、其內有列邦之善端、可以述之於中土、而中國之美行、亦可以達之於我邦、俾兩家日臻于洽習、中外均得其裨也……” (Whenever I reflect on its compilation, I intend to select noteworthy deeds and commendable actions of various nations, which serve as exemplary practices for China. Likewise, the virtuous actions of China may also be communicated abroad, fostering mutual understanding and benefits for both parties…)

(Medhurst 1853, p. 1)

With China’s opening after the Opium War, Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) was primarily conceived as a platform for intercultural exchanges and communications between Chinese and western civilizations. Its Chinese name Xia’er 遐邇, literally meaning “far and near”, symbolized this intent, implying a bridge spanning both distant and proximate cultures. The publication was envisioned as a guide to understanding historical and contemporary affairs, both domestic and international. Unlike earlier periodicals, Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) was co-funded by Ying Wa College 英華書院 and the Morrison Education Society. Its inaugural editor was Medhurst, founder of the London Missionary Society Mission Press, the first modern printing establishment in China. Due to his multiple roles, Medhurst delegated editorial responsibilities to Charles Batten Hiller, his son-in-law, who subsequently appointed James Legge (1815–1897), the prestigious and prominent British sinologist famous for his translation of Chinese classics, as the editor. Alongside these missionary editors, Chinese assistants Huang Sheng (黃勝, 1825–1902) and Wang Tao (王韜, 1828–1897) made great contributions. The journal’s structured editorial framework enabled pioneering management practices, making it the first Chinese periodical to feature a Chinese–English catalog, incorporate news illustrations, include news headlines and introduce an advertisement section.

Furthermore, from its first issue, Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) exclusively established a dedicated regular news column, Jinri zabao 近日雜報 (Miscellaneous News), covering diverse topics such as politics, economics, science and geography both within China and abroad. Historically, the distinction between Bao 報 (newspaper) and Kan 刊 (journal) was ambiguous; however, the debut of Miscellaneous News marked a clear demarcation and projected a transitional phase in the evolution of news reporting within Chinese periodicals. Notably, Miscellaneous News was characterized by promptness, authenticity and analytical commentaries, representing a new stage in Chinese journalism. Its coverage spanned Chinese and international affairs, constructing a platform for mutual understanding of occurrences. “Miscellaneous News in the Chinese Serial, even judged by today’s criteria, were of high journalistic quality” (Zhao 2014, p. 10).

Moreover, it placed extraordinary emphasis on introducing Western political institutions and literary works. It featured articles on topics such as Xianggang jilue 香港紀略 (Hongkong Annals), Yingguo zhengzhi zhidu 英國政治制度 (The British Constitution), Jixi kaihuang jianzhi xiguo yuanliu 極西開荒建治析國源流 (Discovery of America and Independence of the United States), Huaqiguo zhengzhi zhidu 花旗國政治制度 (The Constitution of the United States), Yinglun guoshi zonglun 英倫國史總論 (Abstract of the History of England, From the Roman Invasion to the Norman Conquest), etc. These writings introduced Western political concepts to Chinese readers, fostering familiarity with constitutionalism, parliamentary practice and modern statecraft, thereby laying the intellectual groundwork for reformist discourse during the late Qing era. Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) thus functioned as a mediating conduit, facilitating the dissemination of Western political ideas and contributing to the early modernization of Chinese political thoughts.

As for literary studies, a typical example was Fuji xiguo shiren yulu yize 附記西國詩人語錄一則 (Notice of the poet Milton. And translation of the sonnet on his blindness), which included a notice of British poet John Milton and a translated Chinese tetra-syllabic verse in No. IX of 1854, which was demonstrated as follows:

• When I consider how my light is spent,
• Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
• And that one Talent which is death to hide
• Lodged with me useless, though my Soul more bent
• To serve therewith my Maker, and present
• My true account, lest he returning chide;
• “Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?”
• I fondly ask. But patience, to prevent
• That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need
• Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best
• Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
• Is Kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed
• And post o’er Land and Ocean without rest:
• They also serve who only stand and wait.”
• 世茫茫兮，我目已盲。靜言思之，尚未半生。
• 天賦兩目，如托千金。今我藏之，其責難任。
• 嗟我目兮，於我無用。雖則無用，我心鄭重。
• 忠以計會，虔以事主。恐主歸時，縱刑無補。
• 嗟彼上帝，既閉我瞳。愚心自忖，豈責我工。
• 忍耐之心，可生奧義。蒼蒼上帝，不較所賜。
• 不較所賜，豈較作事。惟與我軛，負之靡暨。
• 上帝惟皇，在彼蒼蒼。一呼其令，萬臣鏘鏘。
• 駛行水陸，莫敢遑適。彼侍立者，都為其役。(Anonymous 1854, p. 3)

The Chinese translation closely mirrored the form and content of the original version, substituting Western sonnets with Chinese metrical poetry. The Chinese translation in tetra-syllabic words reflected the translator’s profound literary expertise and mastery of Chinese poetic techniques. This translation is regarded as the earliest Chinese translation of English poems, setting a model for transcultural transference of both poetic form and meaning.

3.4. Manipulator of Politics

Starting from the 1870s, missionary press activities entered a transitional stage from primarily religious to more secular content and Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Globe Magazine) was a typical example. Its predecessor was Zhongguo jiaohui xinbao中國教會新報 (China Church News) founded in Shanghai on 5 September 1868. In August 1872 the journal was renamed as Jiaohui xinbao 教會新報 (Church News) and expanded its scope to cover politics, miscellany and sciences. Two years later, it was renamed as Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Globe Magazine) and focused on secular news coverage. After a five-year suspension, the periodical resumed publication on 31 January 1889, under the English title The Review of the Times. The preface titled Fuxing wanguo gongbao xu 復興《萬國公報》序 (Preface to the Revival of The Review of the Times) articulated a broad thematic scope, covering metaphysical doctrines and physical instruments like political governance, miscellaneous events, mathematics, natural sciences, so on and so forth (Shen 1889).

This evolution indicates that missionary periodicals increasingly prioritized social and political issues over religious and scientific topics, with metaphysical thoughts playing a prominent role, especially amid societal transformations in China. Till the late 19th century, reformist ideas spurred the transformation of the new Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times) into a key source of policy relation information and discourse, initiating periodical debates on political affairs. Upon reaching its 200th volume, the publication issued a congratulatory message emphasizing the role of newspapers and periodicals as guiding principles and national pillars responsible for shaping public opinion, articulating political perspectives and commenting on current events. Under this framework, the magazine provided detailed analyses of Western political institutions, including summaries of the American presidential election, the separation of powers, comparative analyses of various political systems and discussions on the applicability of Western models to China, along with proposals addressing China’s political challenges. Notably, it offered serial examinations of constitutional systems in Germany, Japan, Persia, the United States and Britain to support China’s constitutional movement during the late Qing dynasty.

4. Historical Impacts of the Periodicals Concerned on China

”The Western-operated Chinese-language newspapers and journals played a pivotal role during the Late Qing Dynasty, exerted significant influence on China’s academic and political developments” (Zhu 2012, p. 1). These missionary publications served as both tools for evangelism and as repositories of contemporary information, thereby integrating into the indigenous knowledge. As a result, the modern Chinese press began to supplant traditional imperial gazettes, adopting new formats, contents and opinions. Over the course of their development, these missionary periodicals facilitated a better understanding of global affairs and fostered the emergence of new intellectual thoughts aligned with historical and social progression. More importantly, the missionary Chinese periodicals provided readers with opportunities to encounter in the extended time and space of the printing culture, which disrupted the established hierarchical structure of the Chinese knowledge system and contributed to the nation’s modernization and social reform.

4.1. Promotion of Chinese Press

The missionary periodicals provided foundational references and exemplars for the development of modern Chinese journalism in terms of both format and content, thereby facilitating the emergence of China’s national press. Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine), established in 1815 as the first Protestant missionaries-run publication, emphasized economy and brevity, utilizing punctuation remarks to segment sentences, aligning with the reading preferences of its target audience. Additionally, Xia’er guanzhen 遐迩贯珍 (The Chinese Serial) dedicated a specialized news column titled Jinri zabao近日雜報 (Miscellaneous News) and featured a distinctive section called Yuyan yize 喻言一则 (Fables); similarly, Liuhe congtan 六合叢談 (Shanghai Serial) included a column on Xinchu shuji 新出書籍 (Newly Published Books) to introduce recent publications. These features were frequently adopted in subsequent Chinese modern periodicals.

Regarding content, prior to the advent of missionary periodicals, the imperial gazettes in China used to publish court affairs, imperial edicts and official memorials with publishers and editors prohibited from expressing personal opinions or original commentaries. As was exemplified by Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial): “中國除邸抄載上諭奏摺, 僅得朝廷舉動大畧” (The Chinese imperial gazettes merely carry imperial edicts and memorials, offering a summary of the government’s official activities) (Medhurst 1853, p. 1). In contrast, Protestant missionaries openly articulated their viewpoints and perspectives on a wide range of issues, producing commentaries and editorials that embodied the concept of press freedom, thereby breaking away from government-controlled stereotyped gazettes and pioneering a new paradigm for modern periodicals.

Furthermore, in the progression of missionary periodicals, they made innovations in both content and format. For instance, Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine) serialized Chinese novels; Zhongxi wenjianlu 中西聞見錄(Chinese and Foreign Magazine) was the first to publish price lists and include editorial notices and Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) introduced news illustrations and advertisements. These ground-breaking trials and innovations set precedents for follow-up Chinese periodicals.

Apart from the structural elements, layouts and components, missionary periodicals played a fundamental role in cultivating early Chinese journalist talents, as many Chinese intellectuals acquired experiences through participation in these missionary periodicals. Their involvement encompassed translation, editing, compilation, typesetting, printing, distribution, etc. A typical case in point is Wang Tao (王韜), who acted as an assistant to missionary translators of Mohai Shuguan 墨海書館 (London Missionary Society Press) and participated in publications of Liuhe congtan 六合叢談 (Shanghai Serial), which helped establish his reputation and enabled him to found Xunhuan ribao 循环日报 (Universal Circulating Herald) in 1874—the first modern Chinese-language daily newspaper independently funded and operated by Chinese nationals. More importantly, these experiences heightened awareness of the influential role of periodicals in shaping and guiding public opinion and societal reform. The practical and theoretical insights gained laid a solid foundation for their subsequent efforts in establishing and advancing Chinese national periodicals. Between 1896 and 1898, there emerged 65 new national periodicals (Chen 2003, p. 6), modeling themselves after their Western missionary predecessors.

4.2. Enlightenment of Chinese Minds

“The missionaries wield a great influence through a large number of periodicals, and some of their publications have been widely read, and have inspired many Chinese with modern, if not revolutionary ideas.” (Wen and Reith 1901, p. 28) Analyses of the enlightenment effects of these missionary periodicals can be categorized into three primary dimensions: dissemination of Christianity and Western scientific knowledge, commentary on current affairs to steer public opinion and advocacy of progressive education, particularly targeting children and women. Since the inception of Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine), evangelism had been closely intertwined with secular knowledge. As Milne articulated in its preface, “故察世俗書必載道理各等也。神理、人道、國俗、天文、地理、偶遇都必有些。人最悅彩色雲，書中所講道理，要如彩色雲一般，方使眾位亦悅讀也！” (It is essential that Chinese Monthly Magazine encompass principles across divine truths, human ethics, national customs, astronomy, geography, and miscellaneous topics. Just as people are captivated by colorful clouds, the principles conveyed should resemble these vibrant clouds to intrigue readers.) (Milne 1820, p. 2) The metaphor of “colorful clouds” signified comprehensive coverage and accessible language appealed to Chinese readers. In Volume 6, the magazine introduced a column titled Quanguo gedi jilue 全國各地紀略 (Regional Chronicles), providing comparative descriptions of countries in Europe, America, Asia and Africa. By offering these international perspectives, the publication positioned Chinese readers within a global framework, broadening their worldview and encouraging reflections on traditional Sino-centric assumptions.

During the development phase, an increasing number of missionary periodicals, such as Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial), Zhongwai xinbao 中外新報 (Chinese and Foreign Gazette) and Liuhe congtan 六合叢談 (Shanghai Serial), introduced innovative concepts and theories from diverse modern disciplines. Consequently, scientific knowledge began to supplant religious doctrines as the dominant focus, with theology relegated to a secondary role as a footnote within scientific discourse.

By the late 19th century, missionary periodicals expanded their scope beyond evangelism and secular knowledge dissemination, leveraging Western learning to serve political objectives and guiding China toward a Western-centric development trajectory. As a result, social sciences gained prominence within these publications. Exemplary journals such as Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times), Zhongxi wenjianlu 中西聞見錄 (Chinese and Foreign Magazine) and Gezhi huibian 格致彙編 (Chinese Scientific Magazine) primarily featured articles on science and technology. In addition, these publications concentrated on contemporary issues, including analyses of Western political systems, commentary on China’s domestic affairs and the promotion of reformist ideas. Volume 361 of Xia’er guanzhen 遐邇貫珍 (Chinese Serial) articulated the concept of “pragmatic adaptation of traditional rules while selectively incorporating Western methods” (Cheng and Ma 2023, p. 84), reflecting the shared aspiration of missionary reformers.

4.3. Progression of China’s Revolutionary Movements

Periodicals, serving as lens into societal transformations, functioned as both catalysts and mirrors of social reform initiatives, intricately liked to the “cultural semantics of a political moment” (Frederick and Stoler 1989, p. 619). The administration and dissemination of missionary Chinese periodicals coincided with two pivotal national movements: Yangwu yundong洋務運動 (1861–1895) (The Self-Strengthening Movement) and Weixin yundong 維新運動 (1898) (The Reform Movement of 1898, also known as The Hundred Days’ Reform).

The Self-Strengthening Movement championed the doctrine of “learning from the barbarians”, which conferred legitimacy upon missionary periodicals. Consequently, the Qing dynasty relaxed its ban on foreign publications, inviting missionaries to assist in translating Western knowledge. This collaboration heightened the influence of missionary periodicals among the literati and shaped their ideological perspectives. More explicitly, The Reform Movement of 1898 was significantly propelled by these missionary periodicals, particularly Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times), which published articles emphasizing the urgency and necessity of reform, asserting that “only reform can save China”. Following Japan’s Meiji Restoration, Alexander Williamson (1829–1890) authored serial articles in Jiaohui xinbao 教會新報 (The Church News, the former of The Review of the Times), making compliments on Japan’s new governance and attributing its success to the adoption of Western legal systems, the promotion of Western learning, Christianity and comprehensive reforms (Williamson 1871, p. 1033). These narratives resonated with Chinese reform advocates.

Furthermore, this periodical, published nearly four decades with approximately one thousand issues, regularly featured critiques of China’s impoverished conditions while advocating for reform. Its tone grew increasingly political, especially after the First Sino–Japanese War (5 July 1894–17 April 1895), emphasizing political reform and radical change. Undoubtedly, Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times) contributed to shaping reformist thoughts among Chinese intellectuals and served as a precursor to the 1898 Reform Movement. Key leaders of the Movement, including Kang Youwei 康有為, Liang Qichao 梁啟超, Tan Sitong 譚嗣同, Huang Zunxian 黃遵憲 and Tang Caichang 唐才常, were all influenced by its reformist advocacy (X. Liu 2010, pp. 38–39). In 1898, its circulation peaked at approximately 38,000 copies (Fang 1992, p. 353). The periodical functioned as a vital resource for Chinese intellectuals to access Western ideas and analyze domestic and international events and developments, thereby fostering new ideological frameworks and laying the groundwork for reformist initiatives. In its 36th Volume, Timothy Richard (1845–1919) published Jiushi jiaoyi 救世教益 (Benefits of Religion for Saving the World), which outlined 21 Western methods for supporting the populace. Subject to its influence, Kang Youwei 康有為 proposed similar strategies for national strengthening and social support in Gongche shangshu 公車上書 (Petition of the Examination Candidates), the foundational document of the reformist movement (Kang 1981, p. 128). As exemplified by the performative nature of “media events” (Klein 2013), these periodicals acted as catalysts, accelerating and promoting the reformist movement in China.

5. Conclusions

As Daughrity (2011, p. 18) noted, “Today the history of Christianity as an academic discipline is undergoing seismic changes”, and examining its influence in Eastern China may provide alternative insights. Tracing back to 1807 when Robert Morrison, the missionary dispatched by the London Missionary Society, set foot in China, the Protestant missionaries such as Morrison, Milne, Medhurst and Allen introduced Western knowledge into Oriental China, catalyzing the emergence of modern Chinese journalism. They leveraged the extensive, rapid and continuous nature of newspapers and periodicals to disseminate information and knowledge for assimilating and transforming their targeted audiences. In the context of the dynamic sociohistorical landscape of the nineteenth century—including events like the Opium War, the First Sino–Japanese War and the Hundred Days’ Reform Movement—the Protestant missionary periodicals evolved from initial evangelistic efforts to encompassing knowledge dissemination and reform advocacy, exemplified by publications from Chashisu meiyue tongjizhuan 察世俗每月統計傳 (Chinese Monthly Magazine) to Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 (The Review of the Times). This developmental trajectory illustrates the concrete pathway of “Spreading Western learning to the East”, reflecting a transition from superficial engagement to profound integration of Western knowledge into China’s social and political transformation. As Britton (1933, p. 16) observed, “During the 19th century Chinese civilization was jarred from its old course into painful adventures in adjustment to new world conditions.” Analyzing nineteenth-century missionary Chinese periodicals can complement studies on Western texts translated by Protestant missionaries and illuminate how these distinctive periodicals contributed to China’s modernization through the lens of contemporary media studies.

This research traces the chronological progression of missionary Chinese periodicals in the nineteenth century, dividing them into three phases: initiation, development and transformation, aligned with China’s broader social evolution. Despite the kaleidoscopic content spanning religion, culture, politics and so on, these periodicals maintained a focused trajectory, shifting from religious tools to knowledge carriers, cultural bridges and political guides. They reflected and influenced the sociohistorical changes in nineteenth-century China, exerting significant impact on the development of modern Chinese journalism, shaping public consciousness and contributing to revolutionary movements. Although their influence diminished and eventually receded with the rise in indigenous Chinese periodicals, their imprint on Chinese press and society remains indelible, as print culture creates “uniformity and continuity” (McLuhan 1964, p. 15). While this study offers a generalized overview based on limited samples of representative Chinese periodicals run by Protestant missionaries, it is acknowledged that the findings may be somewhat constrained. Future research could expand the corpus to include a wider array of publications for comparative analysis, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive understanding from an integrated holistic perspective.